The Soul in Chinese and Baha'i Belief
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Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Phyllis Ghim-Lian Chew, The Soul in Chinese and Baha'i Belief, bahai-library.com.
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The Soul in Chinese and Baha'i Belief
Phyllis Ghim-Lian Chew

Abstract

This article is a preliminary investigation of the Chinese religion and the
Baha'i Faith and their discourses in relation to their beliefs in the
presence of a soul, the existence of an afterlife, and the phenomenon.of
death. In addition, it explores the ideas on the nature of the soul and the
human being and relates these ideas to the human being's quest for
happiness and meaning in life. Last but not least, the question of free will
and its relation to justice is discussed.

Introduction

In all religions, the true nature of man is his soul. As is typical in
religions, the Baha'i Faith teaches that there is a Creator or God, that
humanity is His creation and that humanity would ultimately return to
the spiritual world. There is reference to the existence of a soul, a unique
possession belonging only to the human being and an entity said to exist
in a life after death, long after the decay of the physical body. There is,
of course, no more difficult a theme to deal with than that of the soul
since the soul is a spiritual metaphysical reality which cannot be
perceived through the senses, and therefore eludes anyone who relies
only upon sensory and intellectual perception.

While the Baha'i Faith may be quite typical in what may be termed a
"religion", the Chinese religion, however, is not so clearly definable. It
represents a much older and complex whole, comprising a vast corpus of
scriptures and divergent traditions. In the first instance, the Chinese
religion is a mixture of shamanism, Confucianism, Taoism and
Buddhism. These not only co-existed but also were believed and
THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

practised in a variety of combinations. The average Chinese person, as
the saying goes, wears "a Confucian crown, a Taoist robe, and Buddhist
sandals. I have therefore called it "Chinese religion" rather than
"Chinese religions'". It is a distinctive religion because of its non-
exclusivity; groups and individuals embraced aspects of more than one
"religion without necessarily reconciling them. In other words, a Chinese
man can claim that he is both a Taoist (a lover of nature), a Confucian
(who is serious in his duties), and a Buddhist (deeply aware of the
transience of life). Its eclectic nature can be seen in the Chinese temples
in Southeast Asia where statues of Confucius, Lao-tzu and the Buddha
are set up alongside those of traditional Chinese immortals as objects of
veneration. To further complicate the picture, the Chinese religion is
actually a little more than this simple trilogy because within each of the
three, there are many schools, each a little different from the other. For
example, in Singapore, a recent survey found that besides Taoism and
Confucianism, there were seven schools of Buddhism (including
Mahayana, Theravada, Pure Land, Ch'an and the Japanese Nichiren
school), at least nine syncretic religions including the Great Way of
Former Heaven, the P'u T'u Men or salvation sect, the Kuei Ken Men or
way of reverting-to-the-first-principle sect and the well known Red
Swastika Society, and many spiritual medium cults, pure Chinese ones,
sino-Malay ones and sino-Indian ones.1 The historical pattern is one of
confluence and overlapping of various strands and religion is held
together by patterns of participation rather than any rational overview.

Another "problem with regard to the Chinese religion is that although we
may refer to a "Chinese religion", we should note here that there is no
Chinese word that corresponds exactly to the word "religion". To the
Chinese, there is no difference between religion and education. The
Chinese word jiao (45c )> meaning teaching, includes all religions. Both
"teaching" and "learning" have the purpose of bringing enlightenment. A
great teacher teaches one to understand the great principle of life and the
universe, how to reach the good and to appreciate the beautiful.
Similarly, Confucian scholars themselves did not consider whether their
system of values was a philosophy of religion as it was not a relevant
question in their culture. The question of dualistic terminology which
plays a large part in Western philosophical consciousness (e.g. "sacred"

Chew, Life Death and Immortality,   p. 70.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief

vs "secular", "salvific" vs "pedagogic", "spiritual" vs "practical" etc!) is
quite alien to the Chinese mind. In the same way philosophy and religion
are neither separable nor clearly distinguishable in Chinese civilisation.2

Although the Chinese notion of "teaching" does not indicate an explicit
belief in God, it is incorrect to say that the Chinese do not believe in
God, or what in their own literature has been referred to as the Absolute
Truth, the Ultimate Reality or the Eternal Ground of Being. Indeed,
sprinkled throughout the Tao-te ching and the other major Chinese
classical texts are references to the presence of the Great Tao. We know
too that there are an abundance of temples and shrines whenever Chinese
people are found and what are temples and shrines if they are not the
earthly palaces of deities and spirits? How could the Chinese have been
described as irreligious people when there were many temples, even in
Communist China? Indeed, the study of archaeology and textual
philology has yielded us a hierarchy of gods and spirits worshipped in
Chinese antiquity, which rivals that of the ancient Near East and the
Graeco-Roman world. Even Confucianism, in what is known as the
"Chinese Great Tradition", has a certain openness to the transcendent.
The fact that Confucius stressed his love for the ancients and the fact that
he was a "transmitter" rather than a "maker" of values symbolises his
conscious attempt to provide a transcendental anchorage for human
civilisation.

A third "problem" that differentiates the Chinese religion from the other
major religions is the lack of a Holy Book or a proclaimed prophet-
figure. Instead, part of the essence of traditional Chinese belief is that
wise sages (great teachers) from time to time will come to show the path
to enlightenment. In a broad sense, the Sage or the junzi (ýg^        ) in
Chinese philosophy can be compared to what is known in Baha'i
theology as "the Perfect man", or "the Manifestation of God", who will
come to reaffirm what the Chinese have called, the way. Throughout the
Mencius, ancient sage kings are extolled precisely because it was
recognised that the sage achieved complete unity and harmony with a
higher realm. On the other hand, imperfect man, in his almost total
ignorance of reality, realises disharmony and conflict and creates
difficulties for himself and for others. In this article, I will therefore

Chew, Chinese Religion, p. 17.
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quote and narrate from the sayings of China's most influential sages
since it is only in China that we have the unique case of a religion
without a prophet, a religion not quite divine in origin but to all intents
and purposes a religion in terms* of its aims and depth of spiritual
insights. As Chew puts it, "It is a religion without revelation."3

Where the multifaceted Chinese religion is concerned, there is of course
a broad range of beliefs and approaches to the nexus of fundamental
questions related to the soul, death and the afterlife. This article is a
preliminary investigation of the Chinese religion and the Baha'i Faith
and their beliefs in relation to a soul, the existence of an afterlife, and the
phenomenon of death. In addition, it explores the ideas on the nature of
the soul and the human being and relates these ideas to the human
being's quest for happiness and meaning in life. Last but not least, the
question of free will and its relation to justice is discussed.

The existence of the soul

All religions teach that the invisible but essential part of man, the soul,
will live on long after the body decays. Indeed, the raison d'etre of the
divine religions has been the promise of immortality. 'Abdu'1-Bahá, the
son of Baha'u'llah, the prophet-founder of the Baha'i Faith and the
interpreter of the Baha'i Writings, calls the soul "the inner reality of
man."4 He also describes it as "a pure and unknown substance.5
Everywhere the Baha'i Writings suggest that the "true man" is the soul
and therefore the body is of minor importance. It is said: ".. .the body has
to die when its light has come to an end. Therefore of what importance
is it?"6

In Chinese religion, one of the clearest expositions of the existence of the
soul is in the writings of Mencius (371-289 BC), the greatest successor

Chew, Chinese Religion, p. 51.
'Abdu'1-Bahá , Promulgation, p. 464.
Ibid.
Ibid.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief

of Confucian thought. Mencius refers to the soul, as the "essential
nature" of man and calls it the "vital spirit":7

I know how to nourish my vast vital spirit... it is not easy to
describe it in words. For it is a spirit extremely great and
extremely strong. When nourished by rectitude and kept integral,
it fills up all between heaven and earth. It is a spirit that must be
mated to justice and natural law. Without these it would be
starved. In fact, it is born of an accumulation of justice, not
something which justice invades from outside and takes to itself.
Its very life depends upon justice. For whenever your conduct
does not satisfy your conscience, the vital spirit suffers
starvation.8

This "vital spirit", a term reminiscent of the work of Plato, is seen here
as a necessary ally of the rational principle (the materialistic rules which
human beings operate by) if their unruly desires are to be kept in order.
According to Mencius, without the help of the vital spirit, the human
being would be like a "powerless monarch", in terms of his true mission
in life.9 The vital spirit is one which cannot be perceived by the material
senses of the physical body but can only be expressed in outward signs
and works. The vital spirit is also placeless since placement is
characteristic of bodies and not of spirit. As the above extract recounts,
the important thing is to inform the vital spirit with the spirit of justice.
When one's conduct is bad, the vital spirit suffers starvation. On the
other hand, when the vital spirit is nourished by the spirit of justice, it is
lifted up to a higher plane, and instead of weakening, will grow
immensely.

Another Chinese mystic, Chuang-tzu (c.300 BC), a contemporary of
Mencius and the greatest successor of Taoist thought after Lao-tzu,
spoke of the spirit or soul of man as the "true man" which could never be
destroyed.11 Chuang-tzu explains that this spirit, the "true man", has
Mencius, Bk 2, pt. 1, ch. 2. Art. 11.
Mencius, Bk 2, pt. 1, ch. 2, arts. 12-14.
Chew, Chinese Religion, p. 90.
It has been said that Chuang-tzu is to Lao-tzu what Mencius is to Confucius.
See Berling, Death and Afterlife.
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existed before man's birth as a human being. When a human being dies,
his true self returns home, as it were, to its original state. It continues to
exist although its existence is beyond time and space. In addition,
another Chinese philosopher, Mo-feu (c 468-376 BC) upheld the belief
that the vital spirit or the true man would continue to live on. He
defended the belief of its existence on the grounds that people had
actually heard the voices of spiritual beings and that beliefs in spiritual
beings was helpful to personal conduct and national peace.12

Although proclaiming the existence of the soul, these influential Chinese
philosophers are, however, relatively silent as to the origins of the soul or
its originator and it is this very silence and impreciseness that has led
many Western observers and scholars to believe that the Chinese
temperament is more suited to a philosophy rather than a religion.13
Here, it is true, however, that the Chinese religion is concerned more
with the celebration of life rather than with the clarification of doctrines.
Whether there is a soul or many souls, a god or many gods is not a
matter of philosophical interest. Two reasons may be postulated at this
juncture as to why although there have been mystical experiences, there
has been very little talk about the soul. Firstly, for the Chinese to
expound on a topic outside space and time would be a transgression of
"the mean", which Confucius had warned about.14 Confucius said: "till
you know about the living, how are you to know about the dead"
(Analects 11:11). The Tao ("omnipotent"), the closest concept in
Chinese thought to "God" is not explicitly expounded on, either in the
Tao-te ching or the Confucian Analects. This silence is consistent with
Chinese thought for the Tao cannot be described since language is a
product of the world and the Tao, logically, is beyond it. The Tao,
described as the organic order underlying the world, cannot be named or
known, only intuited.15 The religious autobiography or treatise has not
been a popular genre in China literature.

Mei, Ethical and Political Thoughts of Mo-tzu, vol. III.
The writings of Western Sinologues such as Legge and Giles in the 19 and 20l
Century helped mould such beliefs. Their students e.g. Derk Bodde also writes in this
tradition.
See the Chung Yung {The Doctrine of the Mean) which represents the mature
thought of Confucius.
See Chew, The Great Tao.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief

The second, and perhaps more important reason, is that while phonetic
language leads easily to conceptual abstractions and a separation of the
sensible from the non-sensible, (e.g. the Greek language presents a world
of meanings in separation from a world of concrete things); an image-
language, such as the Chinese language tends to lead to the cohesion of
the sensible and non-sensible, for example, religion and philosophy is
denoted by the same symbol, jiao ( 4St ). The languages of revelation in
the Baha'i Faith, ie Arabic and Persian are also phonetic rather than
image languages. This has enabled the Baha'i Faith to be more explicit
in its references to the soul. The use of image language explains why the
Chinese tradition is less metaphysical than Western traditions.
Metaphysics in the Western sense is predicated upon the separation of
the sensible from the abstract, the practical from the transcendental.16

However, this silence or indirectness on metaphysical subjects did not
mean that the Chinese do not believe in an ultimate power. Although the
Creator and its creation, the soul, is seldom mentioned in Chinese
literature, it is always assumed. It is the indispensable backdrop for
Confucian and Taoist discourse. In discourses on the Tao, there is a
worldview that seeks the perfection of an individual through union with
an absolute agent or force. In the Tao-te ching, the Tao is referred to as
"the mother of the world" and "the root of all returns".17 The ultimate is
seen in the Tao, a divine force so immanent that it is even in the soil and
tiles, so much a part of the world that it cannot be separated from its
Oneness. Union with the Tao is believed to be the birthright of every
being, and is closely associated with the belief with a mystical Creator.

While both the Chinese religion and the Baha'i Faith acknowledge the
existence of the soul as "a pure and unknown substance", "an inner
reality", "a vital spirit", and "the true man", the Baha'i Faith provides
more details on this "essential nature" of Man. 'Abdu'1-Bahá says that
the soul "... is sent forth by the Word of God" and that the soul is "a
spirit with which God had endowed him (man) at creation".18 The soul
is "the intermediary between the Supreme Concourse and the lower
concourse" suggesting that the soul is the link between the Creator and

Cheng, Chinese Metaphysics, p. 167.
See Tao-te ching, chapters 25 and 16.
Chew, The Great Tao.
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the world of creation.19 For Baha'is, the spirit or the soul is the rider, the
body is only the steed. The soul acts in the physical world with the help
of the body. The soul utilises the frody as an instrument through which its
qualities may be developed. As the to-ordinator of the physical functions
of the body, the soul enables it to function in perfect harmony and with
absolute regularity. It is from the Baha'i Writings that we are able to
understand more clearly what Mencius has previously termed as "not
easily described in words."

The Existence of life after death.

The scarcity of discourse on the afterlife in Chinese tradition can be
attributed to the influence of Confucius. For him, the afterlife is not
within one's control and therefore should not be the focus of attention.
Once, when he was asked whether men have consciousness after death
he replied:

If I say that the dead have consciousness, I am afraid that the
pious sons and obedient grandsons will harm their own lives for
the dead; if I say that the dead have no consciousness, I am
afraid that the unfilial and impious children will abandon the
cadavers of their deceased parents and not even bury them. Why
are you so eager to know if the dead have consciousness? It is
not important now. We will know it naturally later (when we
die)20

Despite this stoic detachment on the part of the great Chinese
philosophical texts from the belief in a soul, most Chinese, through their
daily lives and practices, assume that there is one. They take great care to
maintain personal contact with their ancestors not only through ancestral
tables in an altar placed in a spirit hall or in their homes, but also by
regular visits to the cemetery. There has also been a strong interest in the
care of the corpse, both immediately after death and in the grave. From
early in Chinese history, those with resources seem to have spent

'Abdu'1-Bahá, Ibid.
The Home Sayings of Confucius, quoted in Chih, Chinese Humanism,     p.
415.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief                          11

lavishly on elixirs and other treatments that would prevent or slow down
the process of decay. Families of means invested in watertight and strong
coffins to preserve the body as long as possible. Records found in oracle
bones dating back to the Shang Dynasty (1751-111 BC) contain
numerous references to sacrifices to ancestors, with offerings of food and
other daily necessities and luxuries. Daily utensils and, in extreme cases,
their bodyguard or even concubines were buried with them so that they
could be served. Certainly, a civilisation or culture that focuses so much
on ancestor-worship must presuppose some belief in the soul and
hereafter.

The Chinese words gui ( ^ ) and shen (/ft ) a ^ so show a belief in the
existence of spiritual beings. Etymologically, gui means "to return to the
source" and shen means "to expand", but in ancient times, and for the
masses, gui-shen ( J%/ft ) means merely spiritual beings. Intercessions
are offered for the beloved dead. Prayers are said for the forgiveness of
sins. The ancestor cult was expressed as a memorial service, held
previously at ancestral temples, and after that at gravesides or at home21
Wine and food were usually offered with silent prostration in front of
tables. Ancestors were alleged to have tasted the food before the whole
family partook of the meal. Ancient Chinese literature, especially that of
the fourth and fifth centuries BC is fairly rich in essays and poems
devoted to recalling the soul. The practice of recalling the soul was
widely practised until the Second World War. What is certain is that the
soul, hun-p 'o, survives after death. It is believed that at death the upper
soul, hun, rises up to heaven while the lower soul, po, descends to earth.
This is in harmony with the Confucian belief that the human being is
compounded of two souls - an upper or intellectual soul called the hun,
which becomes the spirit (shen) and ascends to the world above, and a
lower or animal soul, called the po/po , which becomes the ghost (gui)
and descends with the body into the grave.22

Interestingly, in the Baha'i Faith, 'Abdu'1-Bahá describes the soul as "...
the intermediary between the Supreme Concourse and the lower
concourse. It (the soul) hath two phases - "the higher aspireth to the

Yeo, Chinese Family Religion Singapore Baha'i Studies Review Vol. 2, p. 111.
These ideas are found in the Tso Commentary (Tso-chuan) in a recording of a
conversation dated 534 BC.
12                THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

kingdom of El-Abhá and the lights of the mind shine forth from that
horizon upon its higher sphere. The other side inclineth to the lower
concourse of the material world, and its lowest phase is enveloped in the
darkness of ignorance." 'Abdu'1-Bahá continues: "There is a human
spirit and a divine spirit, the latter arising through knowledge and belief
in God. The human spirit is superior to the body and struggles with it for
control of the soul: when it succeeds, the soul becomes heavenly; when
the body obtains control, the soul becomes degraded."23 Elsewhere,
'Abdu'1-Bahá says that "... the human personality appears in two
aspects: the image or likeness of God and the aspect of Satan. The
human reality stands between these two: the divine and the Satanic."24 In
short, "... man, is endowed with two natures: one tendeth towards moral
sublimity and intellectual perfection, while the other turneth to bestial
degradation and carnal imperfection."25

Chuang-tzu believed that the only way to salvation was to identify
oneself with "the orderly process of all being, the TaoT For Chuang-tzu,
death is nothing to fear, for man lives as long as his essence, the Tao,
lives; and the Tao is eternal. One of his most well known stories, often
referred to as the "most fantastic" story of "a happy excursion" has been
variously interpreted by different thinkers. The following interpretation
by Fang is relevant to our discussion on the immortality of the soul:

Here, Chuang-tzu asserts that "the supreme man could lead his
own spirit up to the primordial reposing blissfully in the realm of
Nowhere, doing away with all the petty knowledge and getting
free of the bother of lowly things... the spirit can abide with the
eternal Tao, estranged from the physical world and
disencumbered of all material allurings, independent and free
from all restraints. Upon entering the gate of infinitude, he
experiences supreme bliss and immerses his unique spirit in the
light of the celestial. At the attainment of sagehood, he would
abandon himself to the vast concord of all perfection. He is now

'Abdu'1-Bahá , Tablets, p. 611.
'Abdu'1-Bahá , Selections, p. 288.
Ibid.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief                              13

the archetype of man in the full capacity of the omnipotent
(dao).26

It must be noted here, that not all Chinese people believe that
immortality was only possible in "the realm of Nowhere". A sizeable
number believed that it could also be sought in the material world. In
Chinese thought, there has not been a strict separation of spirit and
matter, (just as there has not been the strict separation of the spiritual
from the practical and the sacred vs the secular). Thus, many Chinese
look forward to the survival of the whole person, including the body. The
belief that humans could become Immortals led historically to the
practice of alchemical experiments. The popular Taoist tradition is
embellished with stories of wondrous drugs and wonder-working
immortals, of levitations and bodily ascensions. This is especially
described in early treatises such as the well-known Ts 'an-t 'ung-ch 7 of
Wei Po-yang (2nd century AD) and the Pao-p 'u-tzu, written by Ko Hung.
As Confucianism and Taoism became increasingly institutionalised, we
also hear of the "heavenly immortals " that have ascended to celestial
regions and of "earthly immortals" that roam about in sacred forests and
mountains. After them come those human beings that appear to die, but
actually only leave behind their physical frames.27 It must be noted that
although there is a pursuit of deathlessness in the popular imagination of
the masses, this does not mean that there was no belief in the existence
of a soul and in spiritual immortality.

Many Chinese also believe in reincarnation, especially those directly
influenced by Buddhist doctrines. There is also a strong belief that the
physical and spiritual worlds are interconnected. In Chinese mythology,
the journey imagery is seen through the cline of existence. Immortality

The World and the Individual, p. 247.
There is a different story with the intellectuals. In the first century A.D., Wang
Ch'ung, one of the more critical and influential philosophers in Chinese history, wrote a
treatise to disprove the existence of spiritual beings. Fan chen (b. 450) attacked the
Buddhist belief. Later Neo-Confucianists, from the 12th Century on, have unanimously
attacked both the Taoist and the Buddhist belief in everlasting life. They believed that
"the best course is to establish virtue, the next best is to establish achievement, and still
the next best is to establish words. When these are abandoned with time, this may be
called immortality."
14              THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

and mortality is often blurred, and there are degrees of both states.28 A
popular belief is the notion that the living being could lighten the
suffering of the dead ancestors and lead them to an early and pleasant
rebirth - either on earth (as in Mahayana Buddhism) or in heaven (as in
philosophical Taoism). In Buddhist terms, this was due to the notion of
"transfer of merit" according to which one could do religious deeds for
the sake of another. One can do charitable acts, perform religious
services or undertake some religious discipline, and intentionally transfer
the merit of that act into an account, as it were, for one's relatives, or for
all suffering beings. This corresponds to the Baha'i belief that once a
soul has departed from this physical world, it will behold in that next
world whatever was hidden from it here. It will be able to "gaze on his
fellows and peers, and those in the ranks above him, and those below".29
Baha'is are encouraged to pray for those who have died in order to assist
their spiritual progress. Similarly, souls which have passed into the next
world are believed to be able to assist people in the physical world. Thus,
both the Chinese religion and the Baha'i Faith possess a strong belief in
the existence of an afterlife and the idea that the dead can help the living
and vice versa.30

The Phenomenon of Death

It is important to consider the phenomenon of death since it is the
beginning or the end of one's life, depending on one's point of
perspective. Its inevitability is the essential key to the understanding of
human interest in the soul and the life hereafter. It evokes the master
emotion of the human race and its occurrence forces us to reflect on the

The great premieval gods are presumed to be immortal yet the Flame Emperor,
brother of the Yellow Emperor, are all killed and died at death, though parts of them live
on in a metamorphosed state. Metamorphosis is also the final destiny of other mythical
figures who have died by execution or drowning such as Kun, who became a bear (some
other variants are turtle and dragon), Kang-hsiang, who becomes a river god and Chig
Wei, who turns into a bird. P'an Ku is transformed into the universe at the moment of
death. Some mystical figures exist on the border of life and death, such as woman
Ch'ou, who was bom a corpse, and the hero Hsing T'ien, who continues to fight after his
head has been lopped off (Birrell, Chinese Mythology, p. 181).
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Selections, p. 171.
Yeo, Chinese Family Religion, Singapore Baha'i Studies Review, Vol. 2, p. 112.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief                 15

meaning of life. In the writings of Chuang-tzu, death has been portrayed
as the "great awakening", the ultimate end of man which is the unity
with the Tao:

When a man is dreaming, he does not realise he is dreaming.
Sometimes he even dreams that he is awake and goes on to
interpret the dream he has just had. Only when he awakes does
he realise that it was all a dream. So, when the Great Awakening
comes, one will realise that his life is a Big Dream. Yet fools
consider themselves as awake, knowing for sure that "this is the
prince and that is the shepard." Oh, what cocksureness!
Confucius and yourself are both dreams; and I who say that you
are dreams am likewise a dream.31

This dream imagery is strikingly similar to the way the Baha'i scriptures
to connote the value of life on the physical plane:

As to material happiness, it never exists; nay, it is but
imagination, an image reflected in mirrors, a spectre and a
shadow... It is something, which but slightly removes one's
affliction... All the material blessings... bestow no delight on
the mind, nor pleasure to the soul: nay, they furnish only the
bodily wants... 32

For Chuang-tzu and 'Abdu'1-Bahá, life on the material plane is
metaphorically only a dream. .Therefore, they taught that the human
being should value spiritual happiness more than material happiness,
since they regard it to be the true basis of all human endeavour.

On another occasion and further on the subject of death, Chuang-tzu
described death as the Great return to its creator and suggests that the
destiny and well-being of the human being is to cultivate a relationship
with the Source of Being. This is an idea not unfamliar to the other
religions, including the Baha'i Faith:

Chuang-tzu, ch. 2, p. 16 Quoted in Sih, Chinese Humanism, p. 76.
'Abdu'1-Bahá , quoted in McLean, Dimensions in Spirituality, p. 177.
16             THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

Man's life in this world is like the flitting shadow of a white
pony on its run as seen through a crack on the wall. A
momentary flash, and it disappears! Like jets of water from the
bubbling fountain, men spring out and return to their source. By
one transformation they are born, by another transformation they
die. At the point of dying, all living beings become miserable
and men feel sad. But it is only the removal of the bow from the
sheath, or the shedding off of a shell. There may be some
confusion amidst the yielding to the change, but the spiritual
soul and animal soul are taking their leave, and the body will
follow them. This is the Great Return!33

Another favoured metaphor in both Chinese and Baha'i beliefs is that
life is a journey and death a point of transition on that path. Death is only
a transformation from one form of existence to another. This suggests to
their followers that if human existence is a source of joy, why should
death, another form of existence be the source of sorrow? In Taoist
belief, human life is depicted as a "journey", a "pilgrimage" of the soul,
the journey back to God. In the Baha'i Faith, ' Abdu'1-Bahá refers to "the
pathway of life is the road which leads to divine knowledge and
attainment.34 In his writings, Chung-tzu also offers a vision of the soul as
well as the body traversing different states of existence. His grief is
captured in the famous story of the death of his wife.

Chuang Tzu's wife died. When Hui Tzu went to convey his
condolences, he found Chuang Tzu sitting with his legs
sprawled out, pounding on a tub and singing. "You lived with
her, she brought up your children and grew old," said Hui
Tzu. "It should be enough simply not to weep at her death.
But pounding on a tub and singing - this is going too far,
isn't it?"

Chaung Tzu said, "You're wrong. When she first died, do you
think I didn't grieve like anyone else? But I looked back to her
beginning and the time before she was born. Not only the time
before she was born, but the time before she had a body. Not

Chuang-tzu. Quoted in Sih, Chinese Humanism, pp. 75-76.
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Promulgation, pp. 294, 336.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief            17

only the time before she had a body, but the time before she had
a spirit. In the midst of the jumble of wonder and mystery a
change took place and she had a spirit. Another change took
palce and she had a body. Another change and she was born.
Now there's been another change and she's dead. It's just like
the progression of the four seasons, spring, summer, fall,
winter.35

Chuang-tzu views the death of his wife as simply another phase of her
journey. He recalls that there was a time in the womb and before, a time
in this world and after. His reverence is more for the natural processes
(the Tao) from which she had come and to which she had returned rather
than a wish to be physically attached to her. A Baha'i saying which
recalls this viewpoint is the advice: "O Son of the Supreme! I have made
death a messenger of joy to thee. Wherefore dost thou grieve? I have
made the light to shed on thee its splendour. Why dost thou veil thyself
therefrom."36 Death is simply another natural phase of one's journey and
excessive grief is uncalled for in light of this perspective.

The Soul and the Nature of Man

Both Chinese and Baha'i beliefs concur that the human being is the only
being with self-consciousness, perception and intelligence, and hence
endowed with the capacity for self-improvement and perfection. "All
men", says Confucius, "are born righteous" {Analects 6:17). Similarly, in
the Baha'i scriptures: "man is the noblest of all beings, the sum of all
perfection...."37 For the Chinese, the human being is a species in his own
right. He may share many similarities with animals but there is an
essential difference between him and the wild beasts of the field. In
other words, there is a difference in kind between man and animals, not
just of degree. In the same way, the Chinese also believe that there is a
difference in kind and not just in degree between man and God. In
addition, some people may be "godlike" but they are not God or "divine
man". As Confucius puts it, some men "are divine to man, but ordinary

Quoted in Berling, Death and Afterlife, p. 184.
BaháVlláh, Hidden Words, Arabic, p. 32.
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, p. 195.
18             THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

to God." 38 Chuang-tzu develops this idea by adding that "the meanest
being in heaven would be the best on earth; and the best on earth, the
meanest in heaven."39 Both religions, although separated by a time of
over 2,000 years have a sophisticated understanding of spiritual
relativity.

Both Chinese and Baha'i views concur that Man is different from
animals for man is able to intellectualise and to understand abstractions.
He is the only creature which can resist nature. For example, man can
defy gravity through the invention of the aeroplane. Most important of
all, in man can also be found the gift of self-consciousness. According to
'Abdu'1-Bahá, the soul bestows upon man "conscious reflection" and
"conscious intelligence." 'Abdu'1-Bahá says: "God has created such a
conscious spirit within him (man) that he is the most wonderful of all
contingent beings."40 Animals do not have the self-image that human
beings have. It is well known that when a chimpanzee, the most evolved
of human primates, sees its own image reflected in a mirror, it often does
not recognise itself. In fact the chimpanzee often thinks that it is another
animal and tries to look behind the mirror for it. Animals are often
incapable of recognising the image of its own body and therefore cannot
come to know of itself as an animal. According to the Baha'i texts, the
gift of consciousness has been bestowed on man so that he can
investigate the truth for himself, arrive at the choice of good and evil,
apprehend the divine teachings, acquire and manifest the bounties of
God.41

The main concern for Confucius was not therefore whether man had a
soul or a certain human uniqueness, that was not found in other creatures
on this material world, since this was already implicit in their overall
understanding of the cosmos. Rather, the emphasis was on a practical
focus, that is, how to put this distinctively human quality to good use.
Chinese scholars such as Confucius and Mencius felt that since man is
essentially noble, law and punishment should not be the main instrument

See Chew, Chinese Religion, p. 85.
See Chew, The Chinese Religion, p. 85. These beliefs are also found in the Baha'i
Faith. See chapters 46,48 48 of Some Answered Questions by 'Abdu'1-Bahá.
' Abdu'1-Bahá , Promulgation of Universal Peace, pp. 258, 17, 58, 51.
cf. MacLean, Dimensions in Spirituality, p. 160.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief                            19

in controlling man's behaviour and actions. What should be emphasised
was rather his sense of shame, something which must come from the
inner self, the conscience. This sense of shame is probably emphasised
more in China than in any other cultural tradition of the world. To label
a man "without shame" is to degrade him to the level of animals.
Confucius himself said that a sense of shame is more powerful than the
fear of punishment. {Analects 2:3). Interestingly, the Baha'i Faith states
that the presence of shame prevents man from doing what is unworthy
and unseemly but warns that this sense of shame, effective as a deterrent,
is confined to only to a few people. By itself, shame is not sufficient to
prevent the occurrence of immoral deeds and the Baha'i Faith advocates
that the offender should, in addition, be punished by the relevant
authorities.42

A related question at this point is how one may reconcile the intrinsic
nobility of man, proclaimed by both the Chinese religion and the Baha'i
Faith, with the occurrence of evil deeds? In the Baha'i Faith, evil results
when the soul, originally pure, becomes corrupted. As 'Ábdu'1-Bahá puts
it, "It is like the nose, which at first smells any odour, but after a
prolonged exposition to an odour, it no longer perceives it,"43 and
moreover, "... every individual is born holy and pure, and only thereafter
may before defiled."44 "As the soul progresses, they will begin to differ
one from the other, some achieving the highest stations, some a middle
one, others remaining at the lowest stage of being."45 This explanation
bears similarity to the ideas of Mencius who explained that the
occurrence of bad deeds are chiefly a result of environmental influences.

In good years the young people often acquire a habit of
dependence. In bad years, the young people often take to
violence. This is not due to the difference in their natural
endowments as conferred by heaven. It is due to the different

' Abdu'1-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, Chapter 74.
Consider the words of Baha'u'llah, the prophet-founder of the Baha'i Faith: "In this
day the tastes of man have changed, and their power of perception hath altered. The
contrary winds of the world, and its colours, have provoked a cold, and deprived men's
nostrils of the sweet savours of Revelation" (Shoghi Effendi, Promised Day 119).
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Selections, p. 190.
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Selections, p. 171.
20              THE SINGAPORE BAHÁÍ STUDIES REVIEW

things by which they allow their minds to be ensnared and
engulfed.

Take for instance, the barley. Let the seed be sown and covered
up. The ground being the same, and the time of planting again
the same, it will grow luxuriantly and ripen in the fullness of
time. If there be inequalities of produce, it must be due to the
thickness and thinness of the soil, to the sufficiency and
insufficiency of rain and dew, and to the different ways of
farming.

In fact, all things which belong to the same kind of species are
similar to each other. Why should we doubt in regard to man, as
if he were a solitary exception to the rule? 46

To summarise, the soul or vital spirit which man possesses, distinguishes
him from the other animals in the world. He is a species in his own
right. The Chinese view of man as the noblest being in the universe
parallels the Baha'i view. Man is different from the animals for he is able
to intellectualise, to understand abstractions and to create something
which had not existed before. He is a special being in the cosmos,
intrinsically noble. The evil deeds that occur are explained away as a
result of habitual addiction or more precisely to the lack of a spiritual
education.

The Education of the Soul

There is a perception in the Chinese tradition that life is a journey to the
ultimate and that many things will occur along the journey which will
alter the end result of the journey for the better or worse. As a result of
this perception, moral education becomes a very important enterprise.
True education is moral education because it teaches man to differentiate
good from bad, the beneficial from the harmful and right from wrong. In
the Book of Great Learning by Confucius, a man has to be cultivated,
"cut and then filed, chiselled and then ground." This makes it, once
again, aligned with the Baha'i Faith. As 'Abdu'1-Bahá puts it, "Were

Mencius, bk 6, pt 1, ch 6 arts. 1-7.
The Soul in Chinese andBahá 7 Belief                21

there no educator, all souls would remain savage, and were it not for the
teachers, the children would be ignorant creatures.47 "The essence of
man" writes Baha'u'llah "is hidden in his individuality which must
appear though the polish of education. This is man's glory, and all else
which depends upon other things is not a part of man himself."48

The Chinese sages have taught that the moron who is fond of learning is
better than an intelligent man who does not exert himself.49 In the Baha'i
writings, education is greatly emphasised and encouraged. In the Baha'i
Faith, the fundamental importance and limitless possibilities of education
are announced in the clearest terms: "Every child is potentially the light
of the world - and at the same time its darkness; wherefore must the
question of education be accounted as of primary importance.50 As
Baha'u'llah puts it, "knowledge is as wings to man's life and a ladder fór
his ascent. Its acquisition is incumbent upon everyone."51 We may
conclude here then that the erstwhile Chinese sage, just like the prophets
of the great religions, reveals to man how he should behave on the
material plane. Indeed, the whole Confucian enterprise is directed toward
the development of the moral individual. The pursuit of knowledge is
inseparable from the quest for moral perfection. The ancient Chinese
always believed that morality should be the goal of education because it
was morality that moved the universe. This stress on moral education by
the great Chinese sages, and which comprises what has been called the
"Great Chinese Tradition", is in keeping with the supreme aim of all the
founders of the great religions.

However, it must be noted that, while both the Chinese religion and the
Baha'i Faith stress education as a means of bringing out true human
qualities, there is a distinctive difference. For the Baha'is, the prevention
of immoral acts will not come just from moral education per se but only
through a moral education which begins with the recognition of the
existence of God. Baha'is believe that man is more self-centred than
other-centred. Thus, education is not enough if it is not sustained by the
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Selections, p.T26.
The Federation of the World" In Star of the West, xiv, 297.
cf. Chew, Chinese Religion, p. 130.
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Selections, p. 130.
Baha'u'llah, Tablets, p. 51.
22              THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

fear of God. In other words, man's sense of shame can only be effective
when it is sustained and inspired by the school of religion. In the Chinese
religion, while education and the cultivation of shame are emphasised,
the question of the existence of God takes a back seat. It is always
assumed as part of the universe of existence but not explicitly in the
foreground as a means of moulding characters.

The Tao of Happiness

If the true man is the soul, how is this related to the perennial quest for
happiness in life? In the Great Chinese Tradition, the way to attain true
happiness is to follow the way of the Tao. In the Tao-te ching:

If I have a grain of wisdom,
I will walk along the great Tao
And only fear to stray (ch 53).

The nature of great virtue is to follow Tao along (ch. 21). In being in
harmony with Tao, everything is made whole. This is echoed in
Confucius, "A resolute scholar and a man of humanity will never seek to
live at the expense of injuring humanity. He would rather sacrifice his
life in order to realise humanity {Analects 15:8). For Mencius, the way to
attain happiness is "For a man to give full realisation to his heart is for
him to understand his own nature, and a man who knows his own nature
will know Heaven. By retaining his heart and nurturing his nature, he is
serving Heaven. {Mencius 8A:1).

Such injunctions are very familiar to the Baha'i Faith. Baha'u'llah
writes: "Whoso keepest the commandments of God shall attain
everlasting felicity."52 'Abdu'1-Bahá adds, "... human happiness consists
only in drawing closer to the threshold of the almighty God, in securing
the peace and well-being of every individual member, high and low
alike, of the human race.. ."53 Baha'is also believe that if the human spirit
is attracted to the Kingdom of God, if the inner sight becomes opened

Baha'u'llah, Gleanings, p. 289.
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Secret of Divine Civilisation, p. 60.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief              23

and the spiritual feelings dominate, he will see the immortality of the
spirit as clearly as he sees the sun.

For the Chinese mystics, simply keeping in harmony with the Tao is not
enough. Many have longed for spontaneous oneness with Tao, "to
become one with the great thoroughfare." 54 This mystic attraction may
be referred to as the attraction between the lover and his beloved.
Baha'uTlah writes; "... the lover hath no desire save union with his
beloved."55 The Baha'i texts very often describe love through metaphors
drawn from the experience of human love between a man and a woman.
In the path of the spiritual search, the lover is ready to give up the
attributes of his natal self that he may take on divine qualities.56

How then does one achieve the Tao of happiness? For the religious
Taoist, the main obstacle to this end are the senses and the intellect
which continously support a separate notion of ego through the presence
of emotions and desires. Mystics therefore apply techniques e.g. fasting,
purification and meditation to empty themselves so as to be one with the
Tao.57 The following shamanitic passages in the Chuang-tzu include the
lyrical description of the holy or perfect man, and gives some mystical
advice on how to cutlivate the soul:

There is a Holy Man living on the distant Ku-she Mountain, with
skin like ice or snow... He does not eat the five grains, but sucks
the wind, drinks the dew, mounts the clouds and mist, rides a
flying dragon, and wanders beyond four seas. By concentrating
his spirit, he can protect creatures from sickness and plague and
make the harvest plentiful (Watson, Complete works of Chuang
Tzu 33).

(Yen Hui said) "May I ask what the fasting of the mind is?"
Confucius said: "Make your will one! Don't listen with your
ears, listen with your mind. No, don't listen with your mind, but
listen with your spirit. Listening stops with the ears, the mind

Chuang-tzu, 6.
See BaháVlláh, Seven Valleys, Chapter 1.
BaháVlláh, Seven Valleys, p. 55.
Kohn, Early Chinese Mysticism.
24             THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

stops with recognition, but spirit is empty and waits on all
things. The Way gathers in emptiness alone. Emptiness is the
fasting of the mind (Watson, Complete Works ofChuang-tzu 57-
58).

For the philosophical Taoist, absolute happiness comes with
transcending the distinctions between the physical self (the ego) and the
universe, by perfect union with the Tao.58 In the Chuang-tzu. it involves
a higher level of knowledge, that of wisdom, which goes beyond the
distinction of things, including that of life and death. This may be called
mystical knowledge, since it is not acquired by ordinary means. Indeed,
it comes only with "forgetting" the knowledge of all things - especially
that of the self. The Chuang-tzu mentions a requirement of the emptying
of the senses and of the mind itself, a preparatory state leading to the
presence of the superhuman and divine.59

In the Baha'i Faith, there is an acknowledgement of inner perception or
intuitive knowledge. The Baha'i texts very often refer to an "inner eye
and vision", an "inner ear and hearing", as well as "inner mind" and
'Abdu'1-Bahá always mentioned two instruments - mind and heart - as
factors of spiritual progress.60 The soul can know "through instruments
and organs" and without them.61 The heart might be viewed as the
instrument by which the soul perceives spiritual knowledge. This kind of
knowledge is immediate, independent of any physical instrument,
reflection or reasoning and leads man directly to the "knowledge of
being". It is insight or intuition and is a power shared by all mankind.
However, because it is seldom used, it has atrophied, "... if the spiritual
qualities of the soul, open to the breath of the Divine spirit, are never
used, they become atrophied, enfeebled, and at last incapable."62 Very
few people make a deliberate, conscious and methodical use of their
insight.

Watson, op. cit.
See Chew, Life Death and Immortality, for an account of Taoist attempts to
surmount the physical plane through a variety of practices.
'Abdu'1-Bahá , Promulgation of Universal Peace, pp. 187-270.
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, p. 227.
' Abdu'1-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, p. 227.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief                      25

The Taoist religion has always acknowledged the power of intuition and
much of the history of religious Taoism are actually endeavours to tap
this power so as to achieve a mystical unification with Tao. Taoist
practice often consists of attempts to empty the ordinary ego-centred
mind, a cleansing of sensually-based thoughts and replacing them with
doctrines and concepts of its mystical tradition. While the Baha'i Faith
does not encourage such a single-minded preoccupation in the pursuit of
the spiritual path, it does prescribe a systematic use of this extraordinary
cognitive power, and points to meditation as the specific practice through
which this power may be both used and developed.63 "I now assure
thee... that if thy mind become empty and pure from every mention and
thought and thy heart attracted wholly to the kingdom of God, forget all
else besides God and come in communion with the Spirit of God, then
the Holy Spirit will assist thee with a power which will enable thee to
penetrate all things, and a Dazzling Spark which enlightens all sides, a
Brilliant Flame in the zenith of the heaven, will teach thee that which
thou dost not know of the facts of the universe and of the divine
doctrine".64 For Baha'is, this "emptiness" and " fasting of the mind"
mentioned in the Chuang-tzu is primarily the choice of the soul in
shutting itself off from the world of material attachment and turning
towards the world of the spirit. It is primarily the spiritual progress
resulting from the soul's endeavours in making the necessary sacrifices
in the material world that will help it grow in the spiritual world.

Free will and the Question of Justice

Spiritual happiness is the path which the human being may choose by the
exercise of his free will. For Mencius, "the will is the leader of the vital
spirit; and the vital spirit pervades and animates the body. The will is the
ruler, and the vital spirit is subordinate to it." His advice therefore is
"Maintain firm the will, and do not let the vital spirit grow beyond its
control." For as he explains, "when the will is concentrated, it moves the
vital spirit. But when the vital spirit is concentrated, it would move the
will. The important thing is to inform the vital spirit with the spirit of

'Abdu'1-Bahá says: "You cannot apply the name "man" to any being void of this
faculty of meditation; without it he would be a mere animal, lower than the beasts."
'Abdu'1-Bahá, Tablets, p. 706.
26             THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

justice, thus keeping it in the service of will." Mencius taught that when
the vital spirit is nourished by the spirit of justice, it is lifted up to a
higher plane, and, instead of weakening, it grows immensely.65

Mencius' "will" and "vital spirit" may be compared to the concept of
free will and the soul in the Baha'i Faith. In the Baha'i Faith, the choice
of good and evil belongs to man and is called "free will". ' Abdu'1-Bahá
says that God himself cannot compel the soul to become spiritual, and
that the exercise of human will is necessary.66 In explaining this human
condition, 'Abdu'1-Bahá uses the analogy of a ship. "... this condition is
like that of a ship which is moved by the power of the wind or steam; if
this power ceases, the ship cannot move at all. Nevertheless the rudder of
the ship turns it to either side and the power of the steam moves it in the
desired direction... in all the action or inaction of man, he receives
power from the help of God; but the choice of good or evil belongs to the
man himself." 67

The exercise of free will and choice implies also the consequences that
must result from one's decision. All religions have taught that reward
and punishment are associated with good and bad choices. Since each
individual soul will bear the consequences of the actions deriving from
free will, the Chinese sages advise the cultivation of qualities which are
in harmony the with Tao. They warned of the soul's journey to either
heaven or hell at the point of death.

The basic thrust of the T'ai-shang kan-ying p Hen (the Treatise of the
Great Exalted One on Response and Retribution), which is part of the
Taoist Canon, has exercised widespread influence over the centuries.68 It
tells of the existence of a superior power who watches over the
behaviour of all, to reward good and evil. Accordingly, all human
beings are responsible for their own good or bad fortune, as each deed,
good or bad will have its retribution, which comes with the judgement
of the superior power, the shen (diety) in charge of life-span. Taoist texts

Chew, Chinese Religion, p. 90.
J. M. Grundy quoted in Ten days in the Light ofAkka , p. 6.
' Abdu'1-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, pp. 249-50.
See the translation by Teitaro Suzuki and Dr Paul Cams, T'ai -shang Kan-ying
P'ien Chicago: Open Court 1906.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 1 Belief                          27

are explicit with how records of one's deeds are kept. Taoist scripture
speaks of Gods that reside in the human body, especially of astral deities,
in particular one who resides in the human head and keeps a record of
good and bad deeds. There are also others, such as those residing in the
abdomen, who control the human life span. And, external to the human
body, there is the stove god, always keeping silent watch over the
household.

What may be the equivalent of heaven is found in the Classic of
Mountains and Seas, a chapter dating from the first century BC. It
presents one of the earliest and most elaborate descriptions of the earthly
paradise of Kuun-lun. The highest mountains of Kuun-lun in the west
were believed to form an epicenter of the universe, where Heaven and
Earth meet in perfect equipoise. Like Mount Olympus, it is the place
where the gods descend from the sky to that part of the human world,
which most nearly replicates the paradisiacal state of Heaven. This
earthly paradise is guarded from intrusion by a fierce array of mythical
beasts, such as the K'ai-ming, which, with its nine heads and feline body,
recalles the fabled nine-tailed fox and the nine-headed Hsiang Liu
monster slaughtered by Yu.69

Heaven has also become a bureaucracy similar to the imperial
bureaucracy on earth. It had a number of bureaus where worthy people
could get an "appointment" with immortals who hold official posts in the
bureaus.70 On the other hand, Taoist descriptions of hell, just as those of
heaven, are heavily influenced by Buddhist beliefs. Chinese hells are
usually said to be ten in number. Each is ruled by a judge, surrounded by
ministers and attendants, who implement his decisions. In these hells,
reminiscent of the judicial and prison system of China, justice is
impartially meted out and punishments are usually described as corporal,
doled out with the assistance of torture instruments. Reminiscent of the

A different paradise from mountainous K'un-lun is found in the text Lieh Tzu, (4th
century AD) Here the paradise is in the east and consists of islands inhabited by
immortals known as hsien and sheng, or transcendent beings. These terms emerged in
the post-Han era, and a considerable literature, part mythological, part legendary, part
lore and part fiction - grew up around the concept of the hsien-immortsA (See Birrell,
Chinese Mythology, P- 183).
Berling, Death and Afterlife
28              THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

Catholic purgatory, the soul of the deceased goes thorugh the series of
hells until it is ready for rebirth.

Pure Land Buddhists, a popular Buddhist sect with the Chinese, also
introduced the notion of rebirth not into heaven or hell, but directly in the
Pure Land of Bliss established by Amitabha Buddha. This is not a
permanent paradise but a realm devoted to the nurturance of the
Buddhist Faith. It was the ideal environment in which to achieve
Buddhist enlightenment, and eventually, Nirvana. Although this is quite
a sophisticated belief, millions of Chinese believed in the Pure Land as a
kind of paradise and fervently hoped for rebirth there.

For the literati, rewards are viewed in a more sophisticated fashion. The
question of whether life exists after death is always carefully left out of
the discussion. Confucian scholars believe that the sage can organise the
various elements in himself to be in perfect harmony with the
environment and thus achieve immortality. Immortality here is not a
physical one, but in the sense of the influence of the individual. Chinese
thinkers do not live for themselves, but as fathers to their children or as
sons. Although their bodies may perish at death, many parts of their lives
will continue like blood and flesh in their children. Their children will
continue their interest, their words and their contributions to society.

It is interesting to note that both the Chinese religion and the Baha'i
Faith emphasize that the human being will be judged for their deeds, not
beliefs. Both agree that if a human being strays from the path of Heaven,
cruelty, deceitfulness, selfishness, fear, anguish will emerge. In short,
anarchy will prevail both on a personal and societal basis. Of such souls,
Baha'u'llah said that they abide in "the abode of dust" or in the "plane of
heedlessness".71 While hell and heaven take on rather concrete forms in
the Chinese religion, in the Baha'i Faith (as with the Chinese literati), it
is possible to view Heaven and Hell conceptually rather than literally.
Here, hell and heaven are points denoting "nearness" to or "farness"
from the Creator when the soul passes the boundary of death.72

Baha'u'llah, Seven Valleys, pp. 4-5.
In the Baha'i Faith, Hell and Heaven can also be metaphorically experienced on the
physical plane.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief                  29

Conclusion

What we have seen is a brief overview of the rich panoply of Chinese
beliefs and practices regarding the soul and how they compare or
contrast with Baha'i beliefs. We have seen how Chinese practices and
beliefs are not always easily reconciled. In the Chinese religion there is
no discourse on the nature of Heaven (Tian f^) or God but Heaven or
God is often in the background. It is Heaven that frames everything that
man does. Although there is a belief in the survival of the soul and a life
after death, many Chinese people also attempt to seek immortality on the
material plane. But while stressing the nobility of man and the kindling
of conscience as a deterrent, China's history is full of torture and cruelty.
The Confucian scholar will say keep away from spirits but each
succeeding Confucian century sees the elaboration of rites connected
with ancestor worship. While the Chinese long for the hope of a mystical
union with Tao and of journeying to the Western mountains, they also
love the good life on earth and will do everything to preserve their life on
the material plane. While death is not a favourite topic of discussion
either in private or public life, the Chinese makes extensive preparations
for their death and the extension of their influence through their progeny.
It is this paradoxical diversity that reflects the eclectic nature of the
Chinese religion.

On the other hand, there are also consistencies that one can expect in a
religion, for example, the concern for well-being, the strong sense of
moral justice, the responsibility of the living not just for themselves but
for their ancestors, the stress on moral education, the importance of
living a life in harmony in Tao for fear of punishment in the next world,
and so forth.

To conclude, it is clear that in both the Chinese religion and the Baha'i
Faith, a "vital spirit" or a soul exists and it is an unknowable but
immortal entity. There is an awareness that death heralds a gateway to
something far more significant. The quest for happiness is somehow
linked to a devotion to God or related to its proximity with the Tao.
Whatever man chooses to do in this world, will affect the progress of his
soul in the next world. While man may be born noble, he is apt to stray if
he is not guided from birth and both religions have arrived at the
conclusion that education is of the utmost importance if the soul is to
30              THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

progress spiritually. Last but not least, both religions believe in the
interconnectedness of souls. The living are surrounded by and connected
to the dead; while the dead influence and continue to connect to the
living.

There are, of course, differences in the two religions. The Baha'i Faith
has much more explicit references to the soul than the Chinese religion
since it has a Holy Book and a prophet figure who has expounded at
greater length on the subject. Many of the differences are literal rather
than conceptual, for example, they lie in a different terminology such as
the "vital spirit" and "the soul". Both believe in the notions of
immortality, of the link between a material and non-material world, of a
"heaven" and a "hell" although both have embellished their beliefs in
distinctively different ways.

The nature of the soul and the life beyond are elusive and exploring the
subject on a philosophical or intellectual level is to some degree futile.
As Baha'uTlah exclaims, "how can a spider snare a phoenix in his
web?"73 This reminds us of another saying 2,500 years earlier by Lao-
tzu: "If Tao can be taoed, it is not Tao. If its name can be named, it's not
its name."74 Perhaps that is why in China's rich and long history, few
have ventured into this area. All we can say with confidence is the
striking fact that there is in both religions a cosmic hunger, a need to be
related to all things, including the inifmitude of the universe. There is an
awareness of the supernatural, the existence of a great overarching
power, and the perennial wish to reach and communicate with the Great
Unknown despite its remoteness:

O my Master, O my master!
You mingle and blend all things without being
9 harsh:
You bestow blessings upon endless generations
without being charitable;
You are older than the highest antiquity without
being aged;

Baha'u'llah, Seven Valleys, p. 33.
Tao-te ching, ch. 1.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 'í Belief     31

You brood and sustain the whole universe and carve
all things into an infinite variety of forms without
resorting to artificial skill.
This is what I call the Joy of Heaven.
(Chuang-Tzu)15

0 Lord! Thou Whose bounty granteth wishes
1 stand before Thee, all save Thee forgetting
Grant that the mote of knowledge in my spirit
Escape desire and the lowly clay;
Grant that Thine ancient gift, this drop of wisdom,
Merge with Thy mighty sea.
(Bahá u 'lláh)16

Chuang-tzu ch. 6 p. 44, ch 13.
Baha'u'llah, Seven Valleys, p. 54.
32          THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

Works Cited

The translations of the Analects to which I have commonly referred are
Legge and Waley. The translation of the Tao-te ching is by Maurer. The
translations' of Mencius are Legge and Giles, while the translation of
Chuang-tzu is by Giles.

'Abdu'1-Bahá
Paris Talks. Oakham: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1979
The Promulgation of Universal Peace. Wilmette, Illinois: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1982.
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'1-Bahá. Translated by a
Committee at the Baha'i World Centre and by Marzieh Gail. Haifa:
Baha'i World Centre, 1978
Some Answered Questions. Translated by Laura Clifford Barney.
Wilmette, Illinois: Baha'i Publishing Trust, rev. ed. 1981.
Tablets of 'Abdu'1-Bahá Abbas. New York: Baha'i Publishing
Committee, 1909-1916.

BaháVUáh
Gleanings from the Writings of Bahaulláh. Translated by Shoghi
Effendi. Wilmette, Illinois, Baha'i Publishing Trust, 3rd edition,
1976.
Hidden Words. Arabic. Translated by Shoghi Effendi with the
assistance of some English friends, Wilmette: Illinois: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, rev. Ed. 1954.
Seven Valleys. In The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys.
Translated by Ali-Kuli Khan & assisted by Marzieh Gail. Wilmette,
Illinois: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1975.
Tablets of Bahaulláh revealed after the Kitab-I-Aqdas, Haifa,
Baha'i World Center, 1973.

Berling, J. A., Death and Afterlife in Chinese Religions, in Hiroshi
Obayashi (ed.) Death and Afterlife. Perspecitves of World Religion.
New York: Greenwood Press, 1992.
The Soul in Chinese and Bahá 7 Belief              33

Birell, Anne, Chinese Mythology. An Introduction.        Baltimore: The
John Hopkins University Press, 1993.

Cheng, Chung-Ying, Chinese metaphysics as non-metaphysics:
Confucian and Taoist insights into the nature of reality, in Robert E.
Allinson (ed.) Understanding the Chinese Mind, the Philosophical
Roots. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1989

Chew, Phyllis Ghim Lian,
The Chinese Religion and the Bahá 7 Faith. Oxford: George Ronald,
1993.
The Great Tao. Journal of Bahá 7 Studies Vol. 4 No. 2. 1991.
Life, Death and Immortality: the Taoist Religion in Singapore and
the Baha'i Faith. The Singapore Bahá 7 Studies Review. Vol. 2. No.
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Chih, Andrew, Chinese Humanism. A Religion beyond Religions.
Taiwan: Fu Jen Catholic University Press, 1981.

Chuangtzu. Chuang Tzu, The Seven Inner Chapters and other
Writings. Translated by A. C. Graham. London: George, Allen and
Unwin, 1981.

Fang, Thome H., The World and the Individual in Chinese Metaphysics.
In Charles A Moore, The Chinese Mind. Hawaii: University of Hawaii
Press. 1967,238-263.

Giles, H. A., Chuang Tzu: Mystic, Moralist and Social Reformer.
London: George Allen and Unwin, 1989.

Giles, Lionel, The Book ofMencius. London: John Murray, 1942.

Grundy, Julia M., Ten Days in the Light ofAkka. United States: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1979.

Kohn, Livia, Early Chinese Mysticism. 1992. New Jersey: Princeton
University Press.
34           THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

Legge, J., The Four Books: Confucian Analects, The Book of Great
Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean and the Work of Mencius. New
York: Paragon Books Reprint Corp., 1966

Maurer, Herrymon, Tao — the Way of the Ways. London: Wildwood
House, 1982.

Maclean, Jack, Dimensions in Spirituality.    Oxford: George Ronald,
1994.

Mei, Yi-pao, (trans.) The Ethical and Political Works ofMotse. London.
1929.

Sih Paul K. T., (ed.) Chinese Humanism and Christian spirituality.
Essays of John C H. Wu. New York: St John's University Press, 1965.

Watson, Burton, The complete works of Chuang Tzu. New York:
Columbia University Press. 1968.

Waley Arthur, (trans.) The Analects of Confucius. New York: Vintage
Books, 1971.

Yeo, Yew Hock, Chinese Family Religion and World Religion. The
Singapore Bahai Studies Review. Vol 2, No. 1, 1997.
Star of the West. XIV, 297. Reprint of the first Baha'i magazine in the
Western world. Oxford: George Ronald, 1978.
-- The Soul in Chinese and Baha'i Belief (Used by permission of the curator)