Modern Movements in Islam
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Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Gyula Germanus, Modern Movements in Islam, bahai-library.com.
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Modern Movements in Islam

Gyula Germanus
pp. 54-78

Calcutta: Visva-Bharati Book Shop, 1932

[page 54]

The Persians take a unique position among the peoples
professing Islam. Numberless centuries before the revelation
of the Koranic religion Persia had a remarkable culture and a
highly developed civilization. In ancient times it was the cradle
of thoughts and aspirations which illumined mankind with deep
religious ideas radiating to Iranian and non-Iranian peoples. It
was the centre of a mighty political organization which brought
forth imperial influences reaching even to the far-off Balkans
and stirring up the evolution of Greece. The arts and crafts
of administration and of military organization were first developed to a paramount superiority by Persians in their defensive
actions against their Northern foes, the ever-roaming restless
hordes of the Central Asiatic plains, the Turanians. Their
strategy and state-craft became a model to the Turks who
adopted and further developed Persian achievements on the
field of warfare.

Speculative and fanciful, but endowed with an uncommonly
rich intellect, the history of Persian culture is one of the most
splendid spectacles in the evolution of civilization. Every
external influence which has enriched their mental store in the
course of their history, became blended with their character,
which augmented, embellished and variegated, has still in its
innermost recesses retained an irredicable fascination for the
spiritual, the fantastic, the extravagant, and the artistic.
Islam, with its matter of fact theology, grew through contact with
the Persian intellect into a vivid transcendentalism which reared
a metaphysics, the exuberant foliage of - which threatened to
crush its very roots and foundations. Islamic doctrine even in
its most sober aspects gained an allegoric meaning in the eyes
of Persians with whom everything was so highly spiritualized
that contact with reality was often lost. Islam suffered more
heresies at the hands of Persians than of all other races professing the religion of the Prophet. The dogmatism of Semitic
Islam blossomed into metaphysical speculations in which lie

[page 55]

embedded the memories of Persian mental history. We therefore find that the same old theme crops up again and again in
a new garment and under a new name and is always hailed with
boundless enthusiasm.

In modern times a movement which has rapidly gained
ground not only in the Fast but also in Europe and America
and which has become a religion supposedly professed by
millions has its roots in Persia. A new religion has arisen, a
religion of humanity, a universal creed for the whole of mankind which in its present form is not only a factor of social
and perhaps of political importance in Persia, but to judge by
its literature written in English, seems to have been enthusiastically accepted by many Americans. The religion of Bahiism is a
characteristic example of the Persian spirit. It is a remarkable phenomenon that in countries which show such a deep
contrast in cultural matters as America and Persia, this religion
has made such an amazing progress. This alone would justify
our interest in its study.
It is known that after the death of the Prophet Muhammad,
the Muslim. community soon split asunder into hostile parties
which in the course of time developed into distinct theological
sects: the Sunnis and the Shiites, the latter being the partisans
of Ali. According-to the Shiite view Muhammad appointed
Ali to succeed him as the spiritual head of Islam but his rights
were usurped by the first three. Caliphs (Abu Bakar, Omar,
and Othman). The Shiites of course do not approve of and
do not believe in the legality of the election of a Caliph, as
this office, or as they call it, the Ima'mate, is inherent in Ali
and his descendants. It was conferred by God first upon the
Prophet, then upon Ali by the Prophet and afterwards on. Ali's
descendants. It has, therefore, nothing to do with popular
choice or approval. The Caliph of the Sunnis is an outward,
visible, defender of the faith; the Imam of
divinely ordained successor of the Prophet,
perfections and spiritual gifts, whom all the Shiites is the
endowed with all the faithful must
obey, whose decision is absolute and final, whose wisdom is
superhuman, and whose words are authoritative. The Imámites
are descendants of Ali's son Husayn who according to popular

[page 56]

belief had married the daughter of the Persian-Sassanian king,
Yazdigird III, and who died a martyr's death at Kerbela (A.D.
68o). This explains the affection in which the Iiiia'ms are held
in Persia, since they are regarded as the direct descendants
not only of the Prophet but also of the royal house of Sassan.
The Imimites are divided into the Isma'ilis or adherents of the
seven Ima'ms, and the Ithna Ashariya or adherents 'of the
twelve Ima'ms. We are mostly concerned with the latter here.
Iina'm left no male issue, but as the world
an Iina'm, the Shiites of the sect of the twelve
century-

last lina'm never died but only retired from

resides in a fabulous

The twelfth
cannot do without
Inia"ns-the state
believed that the
mortal ken and town called Jabulka
among his faithful disciples from where he will issue forth
in the fullness of time to do justice among mankind. He will
appear as the Ima'm Mahdi, the God-directed, whose messianic
advent every Shiite is eagerly expecting. It is held that since
the disappearance of the Ima'm two main periods have passed :
(a) tile minor occultation (ghaibat-i-sughra) A:H. 26o-329
(A. D. 873-942) during which four intermediaries conimunicat-
ed his instructions who were called the Bdb, or gate, as-they
permitted entrance to the will of the Itnim; (b) the major
occultation (ghaibat-i-kubra) during which no intercourse, not
even indirect, was possible with the Ima5m. At the end of the
19th century Sheikh Ahmed al-Ahsai revived the idea that
amongst the Shiites there must always be one perfect man
capable of serving as a channel of grace between the absent Imim.
and his church. Thus such personages as were convinced of
their superhuman faculty and Godly inspiration may consider
themselves as intermediaries, as gates so to say, to the know-
ledge of the absent ImAm. In the ioth century a certain Ash-
Slialmaghani ibil Abi Azakir had suffered death under the Caliph
Ar-Ra'diii for i a teaching
heretical doctrines which included -among others the tenet of
transmigration of souls. Sheikh Ahmed and his successor,
Seyyid Kazini of Rasht, did not however make use of the title
Bib, but their conception of the 'perfect Shiite' was identical
with the idea connoted by this title. ...

religion of Persia since the )16th
...
assu ng this same title of Ba'b nd for ...

[page 57]

The tenets of the Sheikhi school may be summarized as'
follows : Sheikh Ahmed believed that the body of man was
composed of parts derived froni each of the nine heavens and the
four elements; that the grosser elemental part perished irrevoc-
ably at death and that only the more subtle celestial portion
would appear at the resurrection. He named the subtle body :
Jism huwarkilya (which seems to be derived from a Greek word,
perhaps Hercules?) and believed it to be similar in substance to
the forms in the world of similitudes. He denied that the
Prophet's material body had, on the occasion of his night journey
to heaven, moved from the spot where it lay in a trance. He
believed himself to be under the special guidance of the TniAnis.
He regarded the Ima'ms as creative forces and based his thesis
on dialectics. For God is spoken of in the Koran (23.T4.,) "the
best of Creators"; consequently He cannot be the sole creator.
He went so far in his ultra-Shiite tendencies that he interpreted
the words of the first chapter of the Koran : iyydka nabudu
(Thee do we worship) as referring to Ali.

After the death of Sheikh Ahmed, Hajji Seyyid Kazim, of
Rasht was unanimouslv recognized as the leader of his sc hoot.
Kazim, did not, nominate a successor.- According to Ba'bi
historians he had hinted that the transitional state of things under
which he and his master Sheikh Ahmed had assumed the guidance
of the faithful was drawing to a close, and- that a brighter light
was about to shine forth from the horizon of the spiritual world.
From whatever quarter the sun of truth shall arise it will irradiate
all horizons and render the mirrors of believers' hearts capable
of receiving the effulgence of the lights of wisdom. The Sheikhis
were anxiously expecting the appearance of some one who -shoul
assume the leadership of their party. One of thein, Mulla
Husayn of Bushrawayh proceeded to Shirfiz, and on his arrival
there paid a visit to Mirza Ali Muhammad, with whom, lie had
becolne acquainted at Kerbela- and who was also a staunch
adherent of the school.' Mirza Ali Muhammad learning of the
death of Kfizim, announced his divine mission, and adduced in
support of his claims, the commentary on the Sura of Joseph.

' I have closely followed the histories of Bfibism. and ]3ahfiism translated, edited
and ably expounded by the late Prof. Browne.

[page 58]

Mulla Husayn of Bushrawayh was soon convinced of the truth
-Of the young man's assertion and heralded the advent of the new

a n of
leader, who assumed the title of 'B'b'. Mulla Husay
Bushrawayh became the gate of the gate and the first letter or
the first to believe. The rapidity with which the movement
spread was wonderful. Representatives of all classes hastened
to tender their allegiance to the young Seer of Shirfiz, but it was
from the old Sheikhi party that the most eminent supporters of
the new faith were recruited. The followers of the Ba'b were
called 135bis. A number of the Sheikhis however, refused to
recognize him and adhered to another representative of the
doctrine, Haiji Muhammad Karim Kha'n; and a fierce quarrel
ensued between the two parties. The orthodox Sheikhis proved
to be the foremost and most implacable enemies of the Bibis and
their relentless persecutors. There was very little difference
between the preachings of Mirza Ali Muhammad called the
'Bib,' and those of Hajji Muhammad Karim, since each claimed
to be neither more nor less than the intermediary between the
absent ImAm and his followers, exactly in the same way as were
the fouroriginal gates who bad served as channels of communica-
tion between the Twelfth Inia'm and his followers during the
period of the minor occultation.

It was in 1844 that the new light arose on the horizon of
the Shiites, but it was bitterlv challenged by the followers of
other 'lights' who claimed an equally valid heavenly inspiration,
although their success among mankind still continued to be
determined bv mundane factors. The historical importance of
any idea is not determined by its intrinsic merits, or its alleged
divine origin, but often depends on the skill with which it is
adapted by its expounders to suit local conditions. The history
of Bibism. a new religion arising out of the soil of Persian
Shiism, with its appeal to the imaginative, the heroic persever-
ance of its martyrs, the unscrupulous machinations by which
each faction assailed its antagonists, and the final adaptation of
the doctrine to the tastes and predilections of modern minds
corroborates this old maxim of history.

The Bab was only 27 years of age at the time of his mani-
festation. The sensation created by his advent frightened the

[page 59]

ulemas, and they induced the Government to arrest him and after
a trial to condemn him to imprisonment '. This action on the
part of the Persian Government added to his fame, and gave
impetus to the proselytizing efforts of his followers. The clash
with the intolerant followers of orthodoxy soon provoked reprisals
which led to bloody conflicts. Mulla Husayn of Bushrawayh
and Hajji Muhammad Ali took shelter in an old fortress in
Mazenderfin which had to be taken by storm after a siege Of 7
months; revolts and risings of the followers of the Bib occurred
at Zanjan, ~ Yazd and Niriz which were put down with great
cruelty on the part of Government. -.The spread of the new
creed was amazing. - In the course of 6 years the whole of Persia,
was filledwith Bfibis,-.a clear proof that the idea appealed to the
imaginative Persians. The revolutionary attitude of the BAbis
gained many adherents among the peasants who were dissatisfied
with the economic situation in Persia, and the Government was
compelled to try to crush the movement at its root. The lenient
treatment accorded to the.Bib up till then was abandoned and
he was sentenced to death on the charge of high treason and was
executed at Tabriz in 11850. This was followed by a vigorous
persecution of his followers. Finally in 1852, when an -attempt'
at the life of the Shah was perpetuated by~ some of the BAbis, the
whole sect was violently sulppressed.~ The beautiful poetess
Kurrat ul Ayn and many others-, innocent of all complicity in
the conspiracy, were tormented and cruelly murdered. Some
of the initiates fled to Baghdad, and a branch of Bfibis arose from
this small gr I oup'of exiles. 'They modified the doctrine~ and
developed it into a forin more acceptable 'to those who had no
sympathy for' the exuberant fancies. of the Persian mind.
Among these fugitives there. was, ajad, called Mirza Yahya who
was such,an enthusiastic believer - in the Bib's manifestation that
he had travelled across the whole of, Persia with his half-brother'
Mirza Husayn Ali to see the Ba'b. The Ba'b heard of Mirza
Yahya's zeal and devotion, and declared that in him was fulfilled
the prophecy long current in Shiite tradition in the form of a
conversation between,~Ali and Xumayl "regarding the: coming of,
.eternity.',-' -The B'b conferred
a light shining from- the dawn of"

[page 6o]

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o the particular
teachings differ only in outward form according t
on Mirza Yahva the title of Subh-i-Ezel (the dawn of eternity),'
gave hini. his own ring and authorized him to develop theneeds of the time. The Bfib is also considered to be one of these
philosophy of Ba'bism as he thought fit, and appointed him asmanifestations (the IsmAili sect has seven incarnations of the
his own successor. Deity, called Nfitik, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Christ,
On the BAb's death Subh-i-Ezel was unanimously recognisedMuhammad and IsmAil), and the party of Subh-i-Fzel continued
as the spiritual head of the sect. But his half-brother who hadto revere him as such, while the followers of Bahfiullah looked
received the name of Baha'ullah, the Splendour of God, came intoupon Bahfiullah as this manifestation. It is incumbent on the
greater proininence owing to the retiring habits and also onprophets to use the language appropriate to his audience. It
account of the extreme youth of the leader himself. Otherwill be different for little children, or for young men or- for men
claimants to the leadership also arose but did not gain anyof mature age. The prophet's words must not therefore be taken
following. The two brothers lived in peace and liarinony attoo literally, but must be explained with reference to the actual
Baghdad, where the Turkish Government had permitted them tocircumstances in which they are uttered. This is the justifica'-
reside and where they had niany followers. Here the originaltion of an allegorical interpretation which is so dear to the Shiite
doctrine underwent many changes, Bahdullah conducted a secretmind. The Isma'ili sect was equally prone to explain away the
but successful propaganda in Persia. He matured his ideas forliteral meaning of revealed scriptures; when the Kora'n says, that
the future, and gradually remodelled the tenets for which theJesus had no father, the interpretation is that he received instruc-
niartyrs in Persia had sacrificed their lives. The circumstancestions from no trustworthy teacher : when it says that he raised
in Baghdad gave hini a wider horizon and this compelled him tothe dead, it signifies that he brought knowledge. to dead under-
take a broader view. He retired for two years to the hills of tanding. The BAbis handled this
allegorical interpretation

Kurdistan to meditate upon his ideas. Subh-i-Ezel still adhered (ta'wil)_ in a masterly way. _ They denied the physical
existence
to the orthodox tenets of BAbism- but his peace-loving nature of Paradise or Hell; as the rough Arabs could not understand
prevented an open hostility with BahAullah. ethical values Muhammad spoke to them of Good and Evil in
As time ripens the blossom into luscious fruit there occurs symbolic form. When, in course of - time, one particular form
a profound change in the outward appearance, although the of expression in the teachings of a prophet becomes I
obsolete, . a

new manifestation appears and modifies the' teaching in a suitable-
organic continuitv is not destroyed. Similarly a religious idea
becomes changed in the course of time by the influence of leaders way to advance the eternal progress of the world. The Bfibi
who have an active grasp of the realities of the situation. doctrine is most *definite on this point. It recognises and
Ba'bisin has been altered profoundly by the gradual assimilation emphasizes changes in human affairs, and wishes to mould every
of new conceptions, some of which were entirely foreign to the thought in accordance with the progress of the world. Thgre_
original doctrine. According to BAbi views, the essence of God, can be no final revelation -1 and no last prophet, an idga
which wits
the primal divine Unity, is unknowable and entirely transcends very sympat ph-,I of evolution, and
which in
Iluinan comprehension. We can know nothing about it, we been avowed by Mirza GhuMm
see only its manifestation in the succession of prophets. There Ahmad. According to.the Bfibi doctrine the prophets, as mani-
is no fundamental divergence or conflict between the prophets, festations of the Universal Reason', were forerunners of
progress
all of whoni represent the saine Universal Reason. Their and were always in advance of mankind. This is why every

prophet had been and must be rejected by his own people. 'So

'The language of the 13Ab himself and the terminology of transcendental lore did also the Bftb fare, when one
thousand. years after the dis-
used by his followers reflect the exuberant flight of fancy which often glorified
beautiful words without much meaning. The followers were given fantastic names appearance of the Twelfth Inifim (A.
H. 26o; the Bfib's mani-
full of esoteric allusions.

[page 62]

festation took place in 126o A. H.), he was persecuted and put
to death. In order to prevent mankind from falling -into the
same error lie emphasized that even his manifestation was not
the last and that others would again come in future ages to.b.ring
new revelations suited to new circumstances and altered
conditions.

The theorv of evolution seems to be embodied in a
theoloIlly which believed in a succession of prophethood all
manifesting the one and the same Universal Intelligence but
under diverse conditions and aspects. This view, which is apt
to make Balbism a sympathetic doctrine even to modern rationa-
lists, was not, however, the source of inspiration for the innumer-
able martyrs who died for Ba'bism. What attracted them to
the new creed even at the cost of their lives was the nivstic
doctrine of Ba'bism which was full of transcendental corres-
pondences and equivalents between names based on numerical
values of letters., and of the theory of divine manifestation.

Almost all the constituent elements of BAbisin had their
source in the mediseval heresies of Persian origin. The nation
instinctively cherished and clung to these mystic doctrines --in
which it found a peculiar charm.

Muhammad very soon discarded the title of the BAb and
assumed that of the Point (Nuqta). There is a spurious tradi-
tion according to which Ali is supposed to have said that all
that was in the KorAn was contained implicitly in the opening
chapter, and all that was in this chapter was contained in the
first line (Bismillah), and finally in turn in the initial B of the
Bismillah. and this in turn in the point which stands under the
Arabic B, and Ali is also supposed to have said "I am the
point which stands under the B."

Mirza Muhammad was henceforth called the Primal Point,
or His Holiness the First Point: the manifestation of the Primal
Will. The Bfibis believed that the primal will is incarnated in
the intermediaries between man and God. In one sense it is
identical with God, for a tradition says that whosoever visited
Husayn in his tomb was as one who hath visited God on His
Throne. So likewise the BAb said "Oh Ali, none hath known

[page 63]

God save I and thee; and none hath known me save God and thee,
and none hath known thee save God and I."
Ba'bi mentality may be appreciated by the following extracts
from the Nuqtatu1-Kdf., one of the earliest and most authentic
histories : 'as the same mirror may at different times reflect
different objects, so the same individual mav successively become

[page 64 ]

the returns (or recurrences) of different prototypes.' When
Mirza Muhammad, speaking more freely, as his followers became
more receptive of divine mysteries, declared himself to be the
Point, Mullah Husayn ceased to be only the Gate of Gate and
became the actual Gate; and when he was killed,* his brother
Mirza Muhammad Hasan in turn received the title. But this is
not all. Mirza Ali Muhammad was first of all, Balb, or Gate,
then Zikr or Reminder, than Nuqta or Point. For a while
Mullah Muhammad Ali of Barfurush became the Point, and
Mirza Ali Muhammad relapsed into being his Ba'b and during
this time wrote nothing. "Sometimes it happens," so runs the
Nitqtatu'l-Kdf, "that the Point becomes quiescent in effulgence
and that this effulgence becomes manifested in'the Gate, just as
the apostle of God did not wield the sword but his wrath was
made in anifested in the for m of Ali.- - But afte I r the death of
God's apostle, Ali became the Point and Heaven of Will, and
Hasan became the Gate, and the Earth of Devotion, while
Husay n and Salma'n and the rest were the Letters of the Living.
So likewise in speaking of the Islamic cycle of prophethood, so
long as Muhammad was alive, Ali declared himself to be onlv a
servant amongst his servants, but that ' so soon as'the Prophetic
Mirror (by which is meant the sovereign form of Muhammad)
was shattered to pieces, in less time than a twinkling of aneye,
it (the Sun of Truth) arose in the mirror of Saintship (saintship
represents the esotericespect of religion) so that Ali thus became
the Mirror.or 'Manifestation' of the Primal Will and the Proof
of God upon earthwas ableto say; I am Adam, Noah, Abraham,.
Moses, Jesus and Muhammad." All theoph.anies are identical
in essence and differ only in circumstance, just as the sun
which shines to-day is the same as that which shone yesterday
or that which will shine to-morrow'. These lights of the firma-
ment of Prophethood and Saintships, like the celestial luminaries,

[page 65]

have a rising and a setting, a manifestation and an occultation."
It is obvious that all these notions can be explained only by
means of allegorical comparisons with the phenomena of nature
with which they really have nothing in common. A figurative
expression takes here the place of rational thinking in terms of
concepts corresponding to realities
As to the eschatology of Bibism, it denies bodily resurrec-
tion but the spirit of the deceased may continue to take an
interest in his earthly affairs, and some passages in Bibi writings
also refer to the transmigration of souls, while the return to the
life of his world is conceived in a symbolic sense as a reflection
upon a inirror. However vague the Ba'bi doctrine may be on
certain points it is essentially dogmatic and ev ery utterance of
the manifestation of the period must be accepted without demur.
The Kitdb-i-Aqdas (the "Most Holy Book") of Baha'ullah begins
with "The first thing which God has presented unto His servants
is knowledge of the Day, spring of His Revelation and the
Dawning-place of His Command , which is the Station of His
Spirit in the world of Creation and Command. Whosoever
attaineth unto this hath attained unto all go

od and whosoever is
debarred therefrom is of the -people of error, even though- he
produce all kinds of good deeds." The Ba'b and his immediate
followers were not inclined to tolerance. According to the
'Baygn,' no unbelievers were to be suffered to dwell in the five
principal provinces of Persia, and everywhere they were, as far
as possible, to be subjected to restrictions, and kept in a position
of inferiority. The Ba5bis are strongly antagonistic to Sfifis on
account of their individualism and 'inner light,' and to the
orthodox Musulmans because they did not acknowledge in the
Manifestations the fulfilment of Islam.

A most characteristic feature of 13a'bism is the belief in the
intrinsic value of the letters of the Alphabet. The algebraic
correspondences have puzzled men since the time of Pythagoras.
In Muslim history it was the Hurufis who first attached magic
power to numbers and- tried to derive secret meanings out of the
numerical value of the letters of the Alphabet. Their system
was eagerly taken up and elaborated by the Turkish Bekta'shi
writers. The Isma'iliya sect believed in the number seven. The

Deity had seven incarnations, between each of the seven mcarna I ,
tions there arose seven ImAms, each Ima'm'was at the head of a
heptad; seven operations were required in the making of a convert
and so on. The A[gebraic correspondences. developed by the

tem is practically built

-Th
irrahmdn, irrahim (in the name,of God the merciful, the com-
passionate) comprises ig letters in Arabic script which are the

[page 66]

'Manifestation' of the Point under, the B, just as the whole
Koran is the further Manifestation on a plane of greater plura-
lity of the Bismillah. The number- ig became a kind of a sacred
number, a fundamental basis of the BAbi doctrine by which the
truth of its tenets could be, algebraically proved.
-The Arabic word for one is Wdhid, and the numerical value
of the letters composing _ the word, give the sum (6 + I + 8 + 4) Of
ig. This unity of 19 in turn. manifests -itself as je.19_~36i,
)ihicli :is: ~t~e ~'a I ~thiii ~sK~ullu ~ha ; the letters,
are numerically equivalent (20+30+3O0+T0)=.36o to which by
adding "theone which underlie.9 all plurality.." we get 361, the
number of- all things, which. again is the square of -The
number ig was made the basis of all divisions of tin e, money,
etc. The Ba'bi's idea of a coinage having ig as its basis has
however been abandoned along,with many other impracticable
ordinances. Thus the Ba'bi year comprised 19 solar months of
ig days each, to which intercalary days are added between the
i8th and igth'months. The last month is consecrated to
fasting. The, unity is also manifested in the divine attribute
Hayy, the Living, which equals 8+io=i8, and with the one
which underlies ' all plurality makes 1.9. The BAb together,with
his 18 disciples constituted the letters of the Living (ig).The
choice of Mirza Yahya by the BAb as his successor was,probably
determined by the fact that the numerical value of the name
Yallya was 36, a multiple of 18 on which account he was also
called Wdhid which is numerically equivalent to 28, the number
of letters constituting the Arabic alphabet. _T-hg town Adria-
norde. wh-em the Bfibis were exiled; was called by them the land
of mvsterv: because the svIlables i~- -the fi~-m-~-6F-tYe-t-ow-n Ii-a-d

[page 67]

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the same numerical value (26o) whic!) ~Corr ~onds to the~ N-...and herald -This announcement like the
previous announce-'
in ~-vvhich Fthe tw~elt 1
.........inent of a similar nature, was not accepted and'recognized un--
.........aniniously. Some, even among those who -originally belonged
This doctrine is full of metaphysical transcendentalism, and
even such reforms as savour of utility, such as the amelioration to the circle of the BAb,
vehemently opposed the new manifesta-
'Of the position of women or the prohibition of chastisement of tion of God. A fierce
and'disgraceful 'quarrel attended with
children are entirely based on mystical considerations. For.... Violence broke out between the
rival parties, until finally the
example, the Bfib taught that the future manifestation of God.. Turkish Government had to
intervene in I the fight between the
shall first appear as a child, it would therefore constitute a grave two brothers. The hostile
factions were segregated and exiled
sin for any one to treat the august infaiit 1jarshly, and lience separately. Subli-i-Ezel, who
had been ' nominated by the
-en shotild cease. .........Prii point as his successor, was transferred to Famagusta in
it was necessary that tile chastisement (f cliddi .........nal
The play oil words formed another iniportant element in the.... the island of Cyprus, while
Balialullall was sent to Akka. To
philosophy of Ba'bism. .........each of the factions four.adherents of the opposite group were
.........attached, so that the Turkish Government' could be kept
The conflict between Mirza Muhammad the Ba'b apd Hajji......... informed ~ regarding the
'activities of both the parties. The
Muhammad Karim KhAn regarding the status of the Interme-....... followers of Bahalullah put to
death all the four Ezelis attached.
diary to the hidden Imaim clearly shows, however, tile reaction
of external factors on the growth . of a revealed religion. It was to their party. The hostility
between the two Ba'bi factions
.........continued with pen and dagger alike. The sect of the- Ezelis
not the intrinsic value of the rival doctrines which decided tile which had adhered to 'the
original doctrine 'in its rigid and
issue, but the influence exerted by the respective leaders oil
their contemporaries. The growth of a doctrine and its ulti-... narrow form, graduallv declined
in influence while the followers
.........a in strength. Balia'ullah succeeded in
.........of Bali'ullah gained
mate success is determined by the simplest human factors,
I .......... getting recognized by a large number of people as the,manifes-
anthropological
and social. The fact that the social factors were .........tation of God, and he gradually put the 1~6'b in the background
of greater importance than the transcendental and metaphysical. as compared with his own heavenly
splendour. The name of

[page 68]

nature of the doctrines was clearly recognized by the new leader the sect was changed from that
of Ba'bism to Bahá'ísm. Tile,
BallAullah, who by his carefully conducted propaganda suc-..... doctrines of -the Bfib were
regarded only as preparatory and
ceeded in Attaining a supremacy over the more dogmatic and..... provisional, while Bahaullah was
authorized to give them a final
single-minded Subh-i-Ezel'. .........shape and sanction. And Bahiullah made full use of his
A new period in the history of the movement set in with........ authority. The B&bi religion was
firmly rooted in Persian
the rise of Bahfiullah. The little party of emigrants at Baghbad Sliiitism and it had no chance
of I making proselytes outside the
were too near the Persian frontier, and the Persian Governinent
.........Shiite world. Bahfiullah discarded all restricting metaphysical
requested the Porte for their transfer to Adrianople in 1864... peculiarities. He also modified
the attitude of 'uncompromising
Here BaliAullah publicly announced that it was he in whom...... hostil~y to the orthodox
Musul-mans, and to the Shah of -Persia
God had become manifest in accordance with the prediction of... which had animit-edthe U and
the Ba'b. He strictly adhered to the doctrines of Ba'bism, and. eve VmPathetic attitude towards
all likel- converts. He
i........n p__- _
although there is some evidence to show that he had at one time d`evelo~ed the ethical side of
the teaching, and in Fi-s-l~-tters: to
considered himself to be merely the successor of the Ba'b, he.. potentates he used a gentle and
patient tone. He had a clear
now assumed a new role: he was the promised one, -the real..... grasp of the aspirations'of the
human. mind in the 2oth century,'-
manifestation of God, to whom the 13a'b was only a forerunner.. and included in his teachings ~a
very wide scheme of social

[page 68]

reform in a most synipathetic way, but with the simplistic
views of a dreamer. Anti-alcoholisni, unemployment help,
women's suffrage, reforin of criminology, socialism, local auto-
noiny in political administration, universal language, interna-
tional union, and general peace, all figured in his programme.
Nor was Balliullah Aevoid of th!~__power of clairvoyan .
In the* -year 1869 lie wrote to Napoleon III rebuking him for _4s
Vill-iwfi-i-Ji-he had treated a
fo-rin-eri-e from him. 0 owing
sf~-rn-wariii~n-g--7--T-11~-doiiigs will throw thy kingdom into
confusion; sovereignty shall pass from thy hands to requite
thee for thy deeds, and thus thou shalt find thyself in grievous
loss.Convulsions shall seize all peoples in yonder land, unless
thou dost arise in this cause and in this straight path follow
the spirit. Hath thy poilip made thee vainglorious? By my
life, it shall not endure, nay, it shall pass away, unless thou
dost cling unto this strong cord.We behold abasement hasten
ing upon'thy heels and thou art yet of them that are heedless'.
It is characteristic that an English Balia'i writer believes firmly
that the debacle of France in .1870 would hive been averted if
Napoleon had adopted the noble cause and the straight.path of
the Balia'i.

Bahfiullah was by no means led by Germanophile motives
'in beholding abasement hastening upon the heels' of Napoleon.
In the Kitdb-i-Aqdas which was begun in Adrianople and
finished- in Akka, he sent a similar stern admonition to the
Emperor of Germany:m-

'0 King of Berlin . . . Recollect the one who was greater
than thee in station (Napoleon III), and whose position was
higher than thine. - Where is he? and where are his posses-
sions ? Be admonished and be not of those who sleep. He
cast the tablet of God behind him when we informed him of
what had befallen us from the hosts of oppression and thus dis-
grace beset him from all sides until he returned to the dust in
great loss. 0 King, think deeply concerning him as well as
about those like unto thee who conquered cities and ruled over
servants of God-and -God brought them down from palaces
to graves. Be warned and be of those who are mindful'.

[page 69]

'0 Banks of the River Rhine, we have seen you drenched
in gore because the swords of retribution were drawn against
you. You shall have another turn. And we hear the lamenta-
tion of Berlin, although it be to-day in manifest glory.'

The English writer alluded to above says : "during the
period of German success in the Great War of 1914-18, and
especially during the last German offensive in the spring of
1918, this well-known prophecy was extensively quoted by the
opponents of the BahAi movement in Persia in order to dis-
credit BahAullali; but when the forward sweep of the victorious
Germans was suddenly transformed into a crushing and over-
whelining disaster, the efforts of these enemies of the BaliAi
cause recoiled on themselves, and the notoriety which they had
given to the prophecy became a powerful means of enhancing
the reputation of Bahiullah."

A message of consolation is addressed to Persia in the
Kitdb-i-Akdas

'O land of Ta (Teheran) be not sorrowful from anv cause.
God liath made thee the dawning place of the joy of themorld.
If He will, He will bless thy throne with one who will rule
with justice and gather together the sheep-of God-which have
been sc~!Jttere by the.,wolves. Verily lie will treat the people of
Baha' wih joy and gladness. So, he is of the essence of the
people in the sight of God.'

'Rejoice, for God hath made thee a Horizon of light, because
in thee was born the Dawning Place of the Manifestation. Soon
affairs will be changed in thee and a republic of men shall rule
over thee. Verily the countenance of Grace ~ will - not cease to
behold thee with the eyes of love. Soon peace will overtake
thee after commotion. Thus it liath been decreed in the Book
of Wonders.'

Turkey, which had given shelter to Baha'ullali and his
followers, did not fare better at his hands ~ than France and
Germany. There are several passages: in Ahe Kitd-i-Aqdas
which predict the downfall of the Ottomans,'but evidently his
wrath was~directed against this kingdom, ~;Ithdn' ~whi&a handful
of dust is greater before God,' because it did not take up his
cause in a way which would have satisfied him, ~Thou didst

[page 70]

unite with the Ruler of Persia for doing me harm,' so lie wrote
to Ali Pasha, 'although I had collie to you from the Dawning
Place of the Almighty, the Great, with a cause which refreshed
the eyes of the favoured ones of God. Didst thou think that
thou couldst put out the fire which God hath enkindled in the
Universe? Its blaze and flame will be increased. Soon it will
encompass the world and its inhabitants. Soon the land of
inartyrs (Adrianople) will be changed and will pass out of the
hands of the King" and commotion shall -appear in the districts
and affairs will be in confusion because of what haili happened
to tbose captives' (BahAullah and his companions).
The Turks cared little for the threats of l3alliullah. The
Sliiite -element in his doctrine did not appeal to them, and his
cosmopolitan teachings found deaf cars among the awakening
nationalists. The Government had an eye on him, and when
his quarrel with Subh-i-Ezel led to viol ' ence, it prevented further
blood-shed by separating the rival factions, and Baha'ullah never
attailied any political power in Turkey.

His exhortations sound overbearing and egoistic if we dare
doubt his infallible prophethood and venture to judge them as
those of a normal mortal. He addressed Americans in the
Kitdb-i-Aqda,5 some fifty years ago in the following words :
'0, Rulers of America, Presidents and Governors of the'
Republic therein, hear the call from the Dawning Place on High.
There is no God but me, the speaker and the Omniscient : Bind
up the broken limb with the hands of justice, and break the
sound limb of the oppressor with the rod of the Command of
your Lord, the Ruler, the Wise.'

In the writinzs of Bah6ullah we notice a clearness of style
whi in strikLing contrast to the rugged and unin-t-effl-ObTe
character of Bfibi li tu-re~Through him God addresses His
creatures, proclaiming His love for them, teaching them His
attributes, making His will known, antimucing His laws for
their guidance and pleading for their love, allegiance and service.
In his writings the form of expression frequently changes.
Sometimes it is evident that the man himself is speaking, then

of This prophecy has not yet been fulfilled, for Adrianople is still in the hands
the Turks a6r ,,, -

[page 71]

without a break the writing continues as if God Himself were
speaking in the first person.

His mission was to bring about unity of all mankind in and
through God. He said

'Of the Tree of Knowledge the all-glorious fruit is this
exalted word : of one tree are all ye the fruits and of one bough
the leaves. Let no man glory in this that he loves his country,
but let him rather glory in this that he loves his kind.'

It was this ethical and humanitarian spirit, rather than
the dry metaphysical doctrines of Bahfiism which gained new
followers all over the world, while those who were allured by the
glaniour of mysticism still found ample scope in it. In Akka,
where BahAullah lived as an exile, people flocked to see him,
and by this intercourse with the world his doctrines broadened.
He dropped most of the minor restriction imposed by the Bfib,
which were dictated in many cases by his personal tastes and
feelings. Such were the prohibition of smoking and the eating
of onions, the regulations as to clothing, forms of salutation,
the use of rings, perfumes, the names by which children might
be named and so on. The laws of Bahfiullah, with the excep-
tion of the law of inheritance, are much simpler in character
and are such as may be enforced in practice. For example,
smoking is not noLy unusg~,I~on ~the followers of Bahiullah,
while the Ezelis still maintain the prohibition as stLictly
ever.

In the nineties, a Syrian Christian converted to Balla'ism,
Ibra'him. George Khair-ullah, settled in the United States, and
started active propoganda in America on behalf of the new
revelation. He delivered a large number of lectures oil
BahAism-and published a number of books which were favour-
ably received. The monotonous factory life of over-indus-
trialized America harbours a naive sentimentalism which finds
pleasure and enthusiasm in all humanitarian ideas, and it was
not surprising that Bahfiism. developed a vigourous branch-

Footnote:

*While acting as an interpreter to Abdul Bahfi during his tour in Hungary, J
remember that I once offered him cigarettes, and he carefully selected one an
smoked it with apparent enjoyment.

[page 72]

movement in America, marked, by the production of a copious
but shallow literature.

Baha'ullah died in 1892. He nominated as his successor his
eldest son Abbas, also called Abdul BaliA, servant of Baha'.
Balia'ullali had conferred on his son, in accordance with the
usual practice in his community, the sonorous title Ghusn-i-
Azam,' the most mighty branch ; the younger son Mirza
Muliaininad Ali was called 'Gliusn-i-Akbar,' the most great
branch. Abdul Balia"s life was accompanied by thrilling
roniance. He was born at Teheran before midnight oil the 23rd
May, 1844 (5 Djuniidlia'tula, 126o) in the very same hour in
which the Ba'b declared his mission.

He was eight years of age when his father was thrown into
prison. On one occasion he saw his father moving along the
prison yard heavily shackled, his neck bowed under the weight
of a heavy steel collar, his body bent by iron chains. This awful
sight created a lasting impression oil the mind of the bc~y. At
Baghdad, long before the manifestation of God became clear to
Balliullah, the son suddenly felt a conviction that it was his
father in whom the divine spirit sliall shine forth. Sixty years
later he dictated to his secretary_ hisimpressions of that period in
,the following- words:

"I am the servant of the Blessed Perfection Balla'ullah. In
Baghdad I was a child. Then and there He announced to me
the Words and I believed in Him. As soon as He proclaimed
to me the word, I threw myself at His holy feet and implored
and supplicated Him to accept my blood as a sacrifice in His
pathway. What greater glory can I conceive than to see this
lieck chained for His sake, these feet fettered for His love, this
body mutilated th
If in

~X LOWD. LU Lhe dePtns ot the sea for His cause.
reality we are His sincere lovers, if in reality I am His
sincere servant, than I must sacrifice my life, nay all, at his
Blessed Threshold.

Froill. this time his friends began to call him : the mystery
of God; a title by which he was known during the residence in
Baghdad. Several wonderful stories are related about the innate
sa,gacity with which while yet a boy lie solved the most intricate
metaphysical problems. A curious story is current about the

[page 73]

circumstances of his marriage. For a-long time he showed no
inclination for marriage, and no one understood the reason for
this. Afterwards,it became known that there was a girl who
was destined to become his wife, one whose birth came about
through the blessing which the Ba'b had given to her parents in
Ispahan. They had no children although the wife was longing
for a child. On hearing this the Bfib gave the husband ~ an
apple and told him to share it with his wife. After they had
eaten of that apple, it soon became apparent that their long
cherished hopes of parenthood were about to be fulfilled, and
in due course a daughter was born to them. This daughter was
the elected wife of Abdul Bahfi. In the constant odour of
sanctity and miracles, Abdul Bahfi was brought up as the future
leader of the community.

In the face of the clear testament of Bahfiullah little room
was left for dissension, and yet a conflict over the same old
principles soon broke out among the followers. The question
was again whether Bahfiism was a final revelation in which the
possibility of new innovations ceased with the passing of the
Manifestation of God, or whether Abdul Baha' was entitled to
further inspirations of his own. , ~ In the Kitdb-i-A qdas Bahiullah
himself had explicitly, -stated that 'whosoever lays claim to' any
authority to proinulgat ' e fresh revelations before the completion
of a millenium is assuredly a liar and an imposter'. Abdut
Bahfi's - brothers and some of . the. leading Bah6is therefore
strenuously resisted the claim of Abdul Bahfi to promulgate,
new doctrines or fresh. ordinances, on the ground that a millenium-
of occultation must pass before a new exposition of the divine
will would be necessary. Thus the BahAi religion split . into
two hostile parties fighting in Persia as well as in America an'd--
other countries of the world. Ibr6him Khair-ullah espoused the
cause of the conservative party, and consequently Abdul Baha'
was also obliged to send missionaries to America to counteract,
Khair-ullah's propaganda. ..The strife between the, different
Bfibi ~ factions, the heads of all of whIch -claim aTir t divine
mspi:~a-tionis i-diiifiguring Ew ii -the Fis th~,E zin
-t qv
-~- ent,
and is an insoluble ~ contradiction in Ats -baak-
Assuming: the BAb. to have -been divinely inspired (and this

[page 76]

possible in design and workmanship. It should stand in a
large garden, surrounded by a number of accessory buildings
devoted to educational, charitable and social purposes so that
the worship of God in the temple may always be closely
associated with reverent delight in the beauties of nature and
practical work. Such temples are being built in IshkAb6d,
Bombay and Wilmette on lake Michigan near Chicago.

Abdul Baha' lived at Akka, under the strict supervision of
the Turkish Government. He was visited from all parts of
the world by ardent followers or curious sightseers. After the
Turkish revolution he was declared free and in 19TT lie under-
took tours in Europe and America, delivering lectures, answering
questions and expounding the doctrines of his religion of unity.
The reception accorded to him must have deeply impressed him,
and probably created an impression in his mind that his religion
will soon be universal on earth. The universality of his teach-
ing naturally attracted a large number of pacifists, suffragettes,
esperantists, theosophists, prohibitionists, socialists and the
ultra-liberals, while the mysterious effect,.which oriental dress,
beauty of personal appearance and the unfamiliar music of
oriental language never fail to produce on Western minds, drew
others out of pure curiosity. He succeeded in establishing
new centres -of -BahAis_n1 in Germany, France and elsewhere,
while in America he gained a final ascendancy over the followers
of his brother.

In Persia the persecution of BAbis and Bahfiis has_gradnally
TE e 0 who
ceased. e-re--are a few BASIs belongi g to th Id school,
Ml themselves Kullu Shavis, and do not care about the quarrel
between Ezelis and Balifiis, and a large but indeterminable
number of BahAis proper. Lord Curzon in his book on "Persia
and the Persian Question," published in x892, wrote : "the
lowest estimates place the number of BAbis in Persia at half of a
million. I am disposed to think from conversations with persons
well qualified to judge that the total is nearer one million. They
are to be found in every walk of life from the ministers and
nobles of the Court to the scavenger or the groom, not the least
arena of their activity being the Musalman priesthood itself. JU
B6bism continues to grow at its present rate of pj~gress, a -time

may conceivably come when it will oust Mollaniiiiadaiiisin from
This, I think it would be uiilikelv to do.
did it appear upon the_:__roun-Cu~ner the fla- of a hostile faith.
ut il~iT~e its recruit~ ~a~ won fr~m the best soldiers of the
garrison whom it is attacking, there is greater reason to ~elieve
that it may ultimately prevail." This prediction however was
1 not fulfilled; the movement after a phenomenal rise again
subsided within normal limits.
Abdul BahA survived the Great War, and saw a good deal

[page 77]

of his life-work come to fruition. The Bahá'ís set a good example
of material work in transforming the barren Akka (Akbrab-
ulbilfid) into a little garden. They organized extensive agricul-
tural operations near Tiberias during the war, and secured a
great supply of wheat by which a famine was averted. Since
the. British occupation of Syria, Abdul BahA became the centre
of a large circle listening to_!1lS__L11_UMiR4iP9_~s, and hundreds
of visitors from the East and West flocked to his house. The
British Government was so profoundly impressed -by Kvs_in~i~
character and his great work in the interest of peace and pros-
perity of the people that they conferred on him a knighthood of
the British Empire. When he departed from the earthly life
in ig2i the British High Commissioner officially took part in
his fumeral. -
He died without inale issue. His grand-son Shauk-i-
_Rabb:a~ni ~astu~dent of Oxford, was- vroclaimed as his succes.sor,
but he was unable to im a group of foil _.- it
is..not unlikely that the MUG -movement will ebobbotitAn-plati-
t6des of uni~J_salism_._ A typical exanipl_eof -recent writings is
furnishe&Vy_tNe_'F6-ok on 'the New Humanity' by Mirza Alimad
Sohrab, the Secretary of Abdul Bahfi, in which the idea of
universality is indiscriminately applied to such concepts as
universal peace, universal patriotism,- universal language,
universal opinion, universal dawn (?), universal age,' univer-
sal newspaper, universal feminity,' universal painting and

'P. 181. "This is the age of women, for this very reason if for no other, it
is a universal age."
' P. 290. "In her hands is the jar of star (scent) of the rose of understanding.
An artist whiarred into my ear; "I would rather spend one hour with her than
seventy years it a Saint."

[page 78]

literature, universal aviation and broadcasting, universal
penance and so on. It is a work not devoid of charm but with-
out the slightest basis of science or a positive back-ground of
history.

The after-effects of the Great War in Persia are however
not very conducive towards the growth of mysticism. In the
West there was a decided reaction against materialism, in the
East there was a movement towards positivism, a process which
has its psychological as well as social reasons. Bahfiism is not
likely to continue to exercise its old majzic influenm--on

is now more inclined to be captivated
by the forward march of industrialism.Romance will pass
away with the gro;thand the colour of life will
dissolve into the gray haze of outward uniformity. Nothing is
more cruel than realities, for even if they give contact with truth,
they fail to bring happiness, the illusion of. pious hearts.

Water when analysed consists of two elements without taste
and flavour, still it quenches the thirst and is the substance of
life. Likewise every religion can be analysed into elements of
myth, legends and popular lore; still it- quenches the thirst of
man for guidance and truth and sustains him in his stumbling
progress through errors and deficiencies in his slow approach
to the harmony pervading the universe.

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